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1、RESEARCHARTICLEchangedpartsoftheirgenomewiththeances-torsofthesegroups.SeveralfeaturesofDNAextractedfromLateADraftSequenceofthePleistoceneremainsmakeitsstudychallenging.TheDNAisinvariablydegradedtoasmallaver-NeandertalGenomeagesizeoflessthan200basepairs(bp)(21,22),itischemicallymo
2、dified(21,23–26),andextracts1111almostalwayscontainonlysmallamountsofen-RichardE.Green,*†‡JohannesKrause,†§AdrianW.Briggs,†§TomislavMaricic,†§11223dogenousDNAbutlargeamountsofDNAfromUdoStenzel,†§MartinKircher,†§NickPatterson,†§HengLi,†WeiweiZhai,†
3、
4、4533microbialorganismsthatcoloni
5、zedthespecimensMarkusHsi-YangFritz,†NancyF.Hansen,†EricY.Durand,†Anna-SapfoMalaspinas,†67,13711afterdeath.Overthepast20years,methodsforJeffreyD.Jensen,†TomasMarques-Bonet,†CanAlkan,†KayPrüfer,†MatthiasMeyer,†11,8111ancientDNAretrievalhavebeendeveloped(21,22),HernánA.Burbano,†Jeffr
6、eyM.Good,†RigoSchultz,AyinuerAximu-Petri,AnneButthof,11112largelybasedonthepolymerasechainreactionBarbaraHöber,BarbaraHöffner,MadlenSiegemund,AntjeWeihmann,ChadNusbaum,22299(PCR)(27).InthecaseofthenucleargenomeofEricS.Lander,CarstenRuss,NathanielNovod,JasonAffourtit,MichaelEgholm,
7、2110111010Neandertals,fourshortgenesequenceshavebeenChristineVerna,PavaoRudan,DejanaBrajkovic,ŽeljkoKucan,IvanGušic,12121314determinedbyPCR:fragmentsoftheMC1RgeneVladimirB.Doronichev,LiubovV.Golovanova,CarlesLalueza-Fox,MarcodelaRasilla,141516,17187involvedinskinpigmentation(28),a
8、segmentofJavierFortea,¶AntonioRosas,RalfW.Schmitz,PhilipL.F.Johnson,†EvanE.Eichler,†194533theFOXP2geneinvolvedinspeechandlanguageDanielFalush,†EwanBirney,†JamesC.Mullikin,†MontgomerySlatkin,†RasmusNielsen,†112,201(29),partsoftheABObloodgrouplocus(30),andJanetKelso,†MichaelLachmann
9、,†DavidReich,*†SvantePääbo*†atastereceptorgene(31).However,althoughPCRNeandertals,theclosestevolutionaryrelativesofpresent-dayhumans,livedinlargepartsofEuropeofancientDNAcanbemultiplexed(32),itdoesandwesternAsiabeforedisappearing30,000yearsago.WepresentadraftsequenceoftheNeanderta
10、lnotallowtheretrievalofalargeprop
