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1、43JusticefromAboveorBelow?PopularStrategiesforResolvingGrievancesinRuralChina*EthanMichelsonABSTRACTResearchonruralconflictinChinasuggeststhatvillageleadersaresourcesoftroubleandobstaclestojusticeandthataggrievedvillagershavemoretrustinandreceivemoresatisf
2、actoryredressfromhigher-levelsolutionsthanfromlocalsolutions.Incontrasttothisaccountof‘‘justicefromabove,’’evidencepresentedinthisarticlefroma2002surveyofalmost3,000householdssupportsanalternativetheoryof‘‘justicefrombelow.’’Accordingtothislattertheory,the
3、socialcostsassociatedwithappealingtohigherauthorities,includingthelegalsystem,forhelpwithlocaldisputestendbothtodiscouragetheescalationofdisputesandtoproducerelativelydisappointingexperiencesandoutcomeswhensuchroutesaretaken.Surveyrespondentsindicatedthatl
4、ocalsolutions,oftenwiththeinvolvementofvillageleaders,werefarmoredesirableandeffectivethanhigher-levelsolutions.AssocialandpoliticalconflictintensifiesintheChinesecountryside,villagers1areescalatingtheirdisputesingrowingnumberstohigherauthorities.Officiale
5、ffortstocontrolgrowingtensionsinruralChinaincludematerialconcessions2suchasabolishingagriculturaltaxesaswellasproceduralreformssuchas3strengtheningandexpandingthecourtsandtheofficialcomplaintssystem.This*Thesurveydataonwhichthisarticleisbasedwerecollectedw
6、iththegenerousfinancialsupportoftheFordFoundation(Beijing);forthisIoweaspecialthankstoPhyllisChangandTitiLiu.IwouldalsoliketothankFengShizheng,GuoXinghua,HanHeng,LiLulu,LiuJingming,LuYilong,ShenWeiwei,WangPingandWangXiaobeiformakingthedatacollectionpossibl
7、e.IamgratefultoJoshuaKlugmanandJingTongatIndianaUniversityfortheirresearchassistance.FeedbackandsuggestionsfromGardnerBovingdon,LijunChen,NeilDiamant,SaraFriedman,DavidJames,PierreLandry,JamesLee,SidaLiu,KevinO’Brien,PhillipParnell,BrianPowell,BenjaminRead
8、,FrankUpham,JianxunWangandDaliYanggreatlyimprovedthisarticle.OfcourseIremainsolelyresponsibleforallremainingdefectsandomissions.1ThomasB.BernsteinandXiaoboLu¨,TaxationwithoutRepresentationinContemporaryRuralC
