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中学英语课堂中的交际性语言教学CommunicativeLanguageTeachinginMiddleSchoolEnglishClassContentsAbstract………………………………………………………………....1Keywords………………………………………………………………....1I．Introduction…………………………………………………………....2II．BriefNotesonCLT……………………………………………………..22.1DefinitionofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching……………………..22.2CharacteristicsofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching………………….32.3FunctionsofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching……………………..42.4SignificancesofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching………………….4III．TeacherRolesinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching………….......43.1TwoMainRoles……………………………………………………...53.2ThreeSpecificRoles………………………………………………...…53.3AComparison…………………………………………………….....6IV．TheImplementationofLanguageSkills……………………..……....7V．CommunicativeActivities……………………………………………..85.1TheTypesofCommunicativeActivities………………………………...85.2SixCriteriaforEvaluatingCommunicativeActivities…………………...95.2.1CommunicativePurpose……………………………………….95.2.2CommunicativeDesire………………………………………....9 5.2.3Content,notForm…………………………………………..….105.2.4VarietyofLanguage……………………………………….…...105.2.5NoTeacherIntervention..........................................................…...105.2.6NoMaterialsControl…………………………………………..10VI．ProblemsandSolutionsofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching….106.1ItisDifficulttoCopewithLanguageFunctions………………………106.2GrammarSeemstobeIgnored……………………………………...116.3ThereisanOveremphasisonSpokenLanguage……………………...126.4PlacesHeavyDemandsonthe(Non-Native)Teacher………………...12VII．HowtoImproveStudents’CommunicativeCompetenceinCLT.137.1CommunicativeCompetence…………………………………….…..137.2CommunicativePrinciple……………………………………….…...137.3CommunicativeTeachingSteps…………………………………..….137.3.1BuilduptheStudents’Confidence...........................................…...137.3.2SetupaCommunicativeSituation………………………………147.3.3GetStudentstoListenMoreandGiveMoreChance,ActasaMonitor………………………………………………….…...147.3.4GiveStudentsSpeakingTasks…………………………………...147.3.5OutsideClassTraining…………………………………………...157.3.6MoreLanguageUsethanAnalysis………………………………157.3.7TeachersShouldMakethatTeachingInterestingandExciting……..167.3.8StimulateandGuideStudentstoTryTheirOwnLearningStyle.…16VIII．Conclusion………………………………………………………….16References……………………………………………………………….17 CommunicativeLanguageTeachinginMiddleSchoolEnglishClass摘 要：每个人都接受这一个观点，即语言是信息的媒介，语言的最终目的是使学者在不同的环境中能灵活自在地使用语言。此篇文章详细阐述了在第二语言教学/外语教学中的最重要的趋势之一的教学方法—交际性语言教学法。作为一种教学方法，交际性教学法获得越来越多的重要性，尤其是在中学英语课堂中。它被应用来发展学生的交际能力，即是发展学生的语言能力。换句话说，就是听说读写能力。交际能力包括语言不同能力的综合。此篇文章描述了CLT的定义、特点、功能和重要性；解释了老师在CLT中的角色；讨论了交际性活动和如何发展学生的语言能力；谈到CLT在中学英语课堂中如何提高学生的交际能力。关键字：交际性语言教学；语言能力；老师角色；交际性活动；问题和解决办法；交际能力Abstract:Everyoneacceptsthepropositionthatlanguageisamediumofinformation,andtheultimatetargetoflanguageteachingistoenablelearnerstocommunicatefreelyinvarioussituationswithit.Thispaperelaboratesononeofthemostimportanttrendinsecond/foreignlanguage,thatis,CommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Thismethodisgainingmoreandmoreimportanceinthefieldofsecondlanguageteaching,especiallyinthemiddleschoolEnglishclass.CommunicativeLanguageTeachinghadbeenappliedtodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.Todevelopstudents’communicativeabilitymeanstodevelopstudents’languageskills,namely,listening,speaking,readingandwriting.Communicationinvolvestheintegrationofdifferentlanguageskills.ThispaperdescribesCLTondefinition,characteristic,functionandsignificance;explainsteachers’rolesinCLT;discussescommunicativeactivitiesandhowtodeveloplanguageskills;concernseightstepsinCLTtoimprovestudents’communicativecompetenceinmiddleschoolEnglishclass.Keywords:CommunicativeLanguageTeaching;teachers’role;communicativeactivities;languageskills;problemsandsolutions;communicativecompetence第18页共18页 I．IntroductionEveryoneacceptsthepropositionthatlanguageisamediumofinformation,andthattheultimatetargetoflanguageteachingistoenablelearnerstocommunicatefreelyinvarioussituationswithit.Thetraditionalmethodsfailtoprovidestudentswithappropriatecontextstousethetargetlanguagebecausetheyfocuseitherongrammaticalstructuresorpatterndrillsatsentencelevel.Studentsmayhaveaverygoodmasteryoflinguisticknowledgeandtheyareusuallyquitegoodatgrammaticalanalysis.However,theycannotusetheknowledgetheyhavegainedeffectivelyandappropriatelywhencommunicating.Obviously,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingshouldbeappliedtodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.Todevelopstudents’communicativecompetencemeanstodevelopstudents’languageskills,namely,listening,speaking,readingandwriting.Ofcourse,theseskillscannotbedevelopedwithoutthelearningofpronunciation,grammar,vocabularyandotherlanguageabilities.Communicationinvolvestheintegrationofdifferentlanguageskills.InmiddleschoolEnglishclass,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingisgivenmostconsideration.Itisbeyonddoubtthatthismethodisveryimportantinforeignlanguageteachinganditdeservesfurtherexploration.II．BriefNotesonCLT2.1DefinitionofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingMargieS.Berns,anexpertinthefieldofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching,writesinexplainingFirth’sviewthatlanguageisinteraction;itisinterpersonalactivityandhasaclearrelationshipwithsociety.Inthislight,languagestudyhastolookattheuse(function)oflanguageincontext,bothitslinguisticcontext(whatisutteredbeforeandafteragivenpieceofdiscourse)anditssocial,orsituationalcontext(whoisspeaking,whattheirsocialrolesare,whytheyhavecometogethertospeak).(Berns,1984,p.5)Wilkins,aBritishlinguistproposedacommunicativedefinitionoflanguageservesasabasisfordevelopingcommunicativesyllabusesforlanguageteaching.Hedemonstratedthesystemsofmeaningsthatlaybehindthecommunicativeusesoflanguage.CommunicativeLanguageTeachingasacommunicativeapproachtoforeignorsecondlanguageteachingemphasizesthatthegoaloflanguagelearningiscompetence.TeachersshouldnowtreatCommunicativeLanguageTeachingasanapproachthatnot第18页共18页 onlytomakecommunicativecompetencethegoaloflanguageteachingbutalsotodevelopproceduresforthefourlanguageskills.(Richards,1992)2.2CharacteristicsofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingAttheleveloflanguagetheory,CommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasarich,ifsomewhateclectic,theoreticalbase.Someofthecharacteristicsofthiscommunicativeviewoflanguagefollow.a.Itemphasizesafunctionalapproachtolanguagelearning(i.e.whatpeopledowithlanguage,suchasinviting,apologizing,greetingandintroducing,etc.).Also,tobecompetentinthetargetlanguage,learnersshouldacquirenotonlylinguisticsknowledge,butalsothecultureofthatlanguage.“Context”or“situation”istherealkeytogivingmeaningtofunction.b.Learners’motivationscanbegreatlyencouragedthroughlanguagetechniquesdesignedtoengagelearnersintheauthentic,pragmatic,functionaluseoflanguageformeaningfulpurposes.c.Fluencymaytakeonmoreimportancethanaccuracyinconveyingamessage.Theultimatepurposeforcommunicativesuccessistheactualtransmissionandreceivingoftheintendedmeaning.d.CLTprovides“whole-task”learningthroughvariouskindsofcommunicativeactivities,structuredinordertosuitthelearner’slevelofability.Studentsshouldbegiventaskstoperformorproblemstosolveintheclassroom.e.Studentsaregivenopportunitiestodiscoverandfollowtheirownstylesoflearningandthusdevelopappropriatestrategiesforautonomouslearning.Thishelpsstudentstobecomeindependentlearners.f.Acommunicativeclassroomshouldbelearner-centeredascontrastedtotheteacher-centeredclassroomofthetraditionalmethods.Alearner-centeredclassroomemploystechniquesthataccountforlearners’differentneedsandstyles,givesomecontroltothestudents,allowforstudentscreativityandinnovationandenhancestudents’senseofcompetenceandself-worth.Onlyinastudent-centeredclassroom,studentscanenjoythefreedomtocommunicatewitheachother.g.Inthecommunicativeclassroom,studentsultimatelyhavetousethelanguage,productivelyandreceptively,inunrehearsedcontexts.2.3FunctionsofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching第18页共18页 AlinguistictheoryofcommunicationfavoredinCLTisHalliday'sfunctionalaccountoflanguageuse.“Linguistics...isconcerned...withthedescriptionofspeechactsortexts,sinceonlythroughthestudyoflanguageinuseareallthefunctionsoflanguage,andthereforeallcomponentsofmeaning,broughtintofocus”.(Halliday1970:145).Inanumberofinfluentialbooksandpapers,Hallidayhaselaboratedapowerfultheoryofthefunctionsoflanguage.Hedescribedsevenbasicfunctionsthatlanguageperformsforchildrenlearningtheirfirstlanguage,andlearningasecondlanguagewassimilarlyviewedasperformingdifferentkindsoffunctions.Theseare:a.InstrumentalFunction(“Iwant”):usedforsatisfyingmaterialneeds.b.RegulatoryFunction(“doasItellyou”):usedforcontrollingthebehaviorsofothers.c.InteractionalFunction(“meandyou”):usedforgettingalongwithotherpeople.d.PersonalFunction(“hereIcome”):usedforidentifyingandexpressingtheself.e.HeuristicFunction(“tellmewhy”):usedforexploringtheworldaroundandinsideone.f.ImaginativeFunction(“let’spretend”):usedforcreatingaworldofone’sown.g.InformativeFunction(“I’vegotsomethingtotellyou”):usinglanguagetocommunicatenewinformation.2.4SignificancesofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingLanguageisamediumofinformation,andtheultimatetargetoflanguageteachingistoenablelearnerstocommunicatefreelyinvarioussituationswithit.Intheforeignlanguageeducation,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingisusuallygivenmostconsideration.AndithasbecomemoreandmoreimportantinforeignlanguageteachinganditevenbecomesonenecessarypartinmiddleschoolEnglishclass.ManyprofessionalsandresearchersinthefieldofSecondLanguageTeaching(SLT)wouldagreethatimplicationaslearner-centeredCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)seemstobethenormnowadays.CLTistime-testedandfirmlygroundedinresearchtheory.IthasbeenappliedrepeatedlyandsuccessfullyinEnglishclassaroundtheworldbecauseitmeetsthedemandsofachievingtheultimategoalofcommunicativecompetence.III．TeacherRolesinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching3.1TwoMainRoles第18页共18页 IntheCLT,theteacherhastwomainroles.Thefirstroleistofacilitatethecommunicationprocessbetweenallparticipantsintheclassroom,andintegrateactivitiesandtexts.Thesecondroleistoactasanindependentparticipantwithinthelearningteachinggroup.Theserolesimplyasetofsecondaryrolesfortheteacher:a.Asanorganizerofresourcesandasaresourcehimself,orherself.b.Asaguidewithintheclassroomforexecutingproceduresandactivities.c.Asaresearcherandlearner,withmuchtocontributeintermsofappropriateknowledgeandabilities,actualandobservedexperienceofthenatureoflearning,andorganizationalskills.3.2ThreeSpecificRolesApartfromtheabove-mentioned,therearespecificrolesassumedforteachersinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Theyarerolesas:needsanalyst,counsellor,andgroupprocessmanager.Firstly,needsanalyst:theCommunicativeLanguageTeachingteacherassumesaresponsibilityfordeterminingandrespondingtothelearnerlanguageneeds.Thismaybedoneinformallythroughone-to-onesessionswithstudents,inwhichtheteachertalksthroughsuchissuedasthestudent’sperceptionofhisorherlearningstyle,learningassets,andlearninggoals.Itmaybedoneformallythroughadministeringaneedsassessmentinstrument.Secondly,counsellor:anotherroleassumedbytheteacherinaCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisthatofcounselororadviser.Inthisrole,theteacher-counselorisexpectedtoexemplifyaneffectivecommunicator,seekingtomaximizethemeshingofspeaker’sintentionandlistener’sinterpretation,throughtheuseofparaphrase,confirmation,andfeedback.Thirdly,groupprocessmanager:CommunicativeLanguageTeachingproceduresrequireteacherstodeveloplessteacher-centeredclassroommanagementskills.Itistheteacher’sresponsibilitytoorganizetheclassroomasasettingforcommunicationandcommunicativeactivities.Duringaclassroomactivity,theteachermonitors,encourages,andsuppressestheinclinationtosupplygapsinlexisandgrammar.Theteachercanparticipateinanactivityas“co-communicator”withthelearners.Theteacherisa“facilitator”oflearningthatcanstimulateandpresentnewlanguage,exercisedirectcontroloverthelearners’performance,evaluateandcorrectit.InaCommunicativeLanguageTeachinglanguageclassroom,teachersshouldplayalltherolesdescribedabove.Theyshouldbethegroupprocessmanagerandorganizerto第18页共18页 organizetheclassroomasasettingforcommunication.TeachersmustteachEnglishasameansofcommunication,teachitinacommunicativeclassroomforthepurposeofmeetingauthenticcommunicationneeds.Teachingshouldbecombinedwithopportunitiesforstudentapplicationsofacquiredlanguageskills.3.3AComparisonFollowingisacomparisonoftwolistening&speakingclassesastaughtbythecontrastingmethodsofGrammar-TranslationMethod(GTM)andCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)toshowhowstudentsbenefitfromvariousteacherroles.GTM(100mins.)CLT(100mins.)a)Presentationofnewlesson(writethetopicontheblackboard)(1min.)a)Presentationofnewlesson(give5or6keywordsofthestory)(1min.)b)Presentationofnewtext(explaineverynewword,expressionandgrammaticalstructure)(30mins.)b)Askthestudentstoguesswhattopictheyaregoingtotalkabout.(15mins.)c)Playthetapetwice,thestudentslisteningwithoutlookingatbooks.(10mins.)c)Playthetapethreetimes,aftereachtimethestudentsareaskedtoretellthestory(25mins.)d)Playthetapethe3rdtime,stopthetapeattheendofeachsentence,studentsarerequiredtorepeat,lookingatbooks.(15mins.)d)HelpstudentstounderstandthedifficultwordsorsentencesbyHeuristicMethod.(10mins.)e)Readthetextaftertheteachertwoorthreetimes.(10-15mins.)e)Studentsworkinpairsorgroupsfreely(20mins.)f)Checkreading,correctmistakesinpronunciation(20mins.)f)Studentsgiveperformanceinpairsorgroups.(10-15mins.)g)Playthetapeforthefourthtime,studentsareimitating.(5-8mins)g)Pointoutcommonortypicalerrorsintheirpronunciationorintonation.(4mins.)h)Assignmentofhomework(recitationinpairthetext.)(1min.)h)Assignmentofhomework(trytoaddinformationtothestory.)(1min.)TheteacherrolesindicatedbyCommunicativeLanguageTeachingtheorycanhelpstudentstomasterEnglishsuccessfully.ItisprovedthatthestudentswholearnEnglishthroughCommunicativeLanguageTeachingcannotonlylearntoreadandwriteEnglish第18页共18页 well,butalsospeakanduseEnglishfluently.GraduatesoflanguagelearningprogramsthatemphasizeCommunicativeLanguageTeachingandlearningcancommunicatewithforeignersfreelyandexpresstheirideasclearly.Therefore,teachersshouldworktowardtheappropriateteacherrolesinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.IV．TheImplementationofLanguageSkillsThetranslationofcommunicativecompetenceinlanguageteachingpracticeistodeveloplearners’languageskills,namely,listening,speaking,readingandwriting.Intraditionalpedagogy,listeningandspeakingactivitiesinclude:listeningtotexts(conversationsorstories)eitherreadbytheteacherorpre-recordedonthetape;repeatingwhatisheard;answeringquestionsaccordingtowhatisheard;producingresponsesbasedongivendues;retellingwhatisheard.Itiscleartheseactivitiesinvolveuseoflanguageinacompletelydifferentwayfromhowlanguageisusedinreality.So,listeningandspeakingskillsneedtoberedefinedintermsoftherealcommunicativeusethatisstudentsshouldhavethechancetolistentoandproducewhatismeaningful,authentic,unpredictable,andcreativeifeverpossible.ThelisteningskillhasreceivedspecialattentioninCLT,possiblybecauseitpreviouslyhadbeenneglectedasaskillinitsownright.Listeningsharesanumberoffeatureswithreadingsincebothareinterpretativeorreceptiveskills.Listening,therefore,isviewednotonlyasthecounterpartofspeaking,butalsoasanindependentskillwithitsownobjectives.Inreallife,therearemanysituationsinwhichweactaslistenersonly,forexampleasaudienceforradio,television,lectures,filmsetc.Sincecommunicativecoursefocusonmeaningratherthanonform,thereadingskillisredefinedtofocusonthepurposeofreading.Traditionallythepurposeofreadingistolearnlanguage,namelyvocabulary,grammaretc.Thereadingskillsinvolvedmightbedecoding,structuralanalysisetc.InCLT,readingistoextractthemeaningorthemessage,andfordifferentreadingpurposes,thestudentsusedifferentskills,suchasskimmingandscanningFinally,inCLT,thewritingskillhasbeenexpandedtofocusonitscommunicativegoalsaswell.Studentsshouldpracticewritingwhatpeoplewriteinrealityandwritinginthewaypeoplewriteinreality.Studentsshouldhavethechancetowritetoexpresstheirownfeelingsordescribetheirownexperiences,thusmakingthepracticeofwritingmeaningfulandauthentic.Inaword,CLThasnotreplacedthepreviousapproachesormethodologies.Ithas第18页共18页 onlyexpandedtheareas,languagecontent(toincorporatefunctions),learningprocess(cognitivestyleandinformationprocessing),andproduct(integratinglanguageskills).V．CommunicativeActivities5.1TheTypesofCommunicativeActivitiesThekeyassumptioninCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisthatthestudentslearnthelanguagethroughengaginginavarietyofcommunicativeactivities.Incommunicativeapproach,Littlewooddividedthecommunicativeapproachintopre-communicativeandcommunicativeactivities.Pre-communicative↗StructuralactivitiesActivities↘Quasi-communicativeactivitiesCommunicative↗FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesActivities↘SocialinteractionactivitiesThepre-communicativeactivitiesarepreparatorystepstowardscommunicativeactivities.Theteachersshouldanalyzeallthecommunicativeabilitiesandthenletthestudentspracticethemonebyone.Theaimisforlearnerstopracticeusinglanguagetheywillneedwhenactuallycommunicating.Therearetwotypesofpre-communicativeactivities.Thefirsttypemainlyconcernsaboutstructuralactivities.Thesearemuchlikethegrammarexercisesinwhichtheteacherteachesthestudentshowtousegrammaticalrulesintheircommunications.Thesecondtypeisquasi-communicationactivities,whichareintendedtohelplearnersrelatethestructurestheyarestudyingtotheuseofthelanguage.Somequasi-communicativeactivitiesinclude:a.Situationaldialogues;b.Open-endeddialogues;c.Timetable,map,foodlist,shoppinglistetc.Therearetwotypesofcommunicativeactivities.Thefirstkindisfunctionalcommunicativeactivities.Functionalcommunicativeactivitiesinclude:suchtasksaslearnerscomparingsetsofpicturesandnotingsimilaritiesanddissimilarities;workingoutalikelysequenceofeventsinasetofpictures;discoveringmissingfeaturesinamaporpicture;onelearnercommunicatingbehindascreentoanotherlearnerandgivinginstructionsonhowtodrawapictureorshape,poolinginformationtosolveaproblemorhowtocompleteamapbyfollowingdirections.Thepurposeofthesekindsofactivitiesistoletthelearnersusethelanguagetheyhavelearnttoputacrosstheirideasinoralpresentations.Learnershavetosolveproblems,seekinformationandmakedecisions第18页共18页 aboutwhatispropertosayortodo.Thesecondkindissocialinteractionactivities:themainpurposeofthisactivityistogivethelearnersanopportunitytousethelanguageinanappropriatesocialcontext,tocreateavarietyofsocialsituationsandrelationships,suchashavingpairwork,groupwork,havingconversations,simulationsandrole-playingandsoonandsoforth.Socialinteractionactivitiesincludeconversationanddiscussionsessions,dialoguesandrole-play,simulations,skits,improvisationsanddebates.5.2SixCriteriaforEvaluatingCommunicativeActivitiesFromthenamesoftheseactivities,itisclearthatmostofthemareaimedatdevelopinglisteningandspeakingskills.Moreover,Littlewood’sbookhasanotherchapterexclusivelyintroducinglisteningactivities,butnotreadingandwritingactivities.RichardsandRodgers(1986)claimthattherangeofexercisetypesandactivitiescompatiblewithCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisunlimited,buttheyhavenotintroducedanyspecificactivities,rathertheyhavetakensomeofLittlewood’sactivitiesasexamples.AlthoughneitherLittlewoodnorRichardsclaimsthatcommunicativeactivitiesareonlyspeakingandlisteningtasks,thenarrowscopeoftheactivitiestheyhaveintroducedmayleavesuchanimpression.Readingandwritingarealsocommunicativeskills,whichareworthnolessattentionthanlisteningandspeaking.Nowadays,whenteachersevaluatelanguageteachingactivities,theyoftensay,“Thisactivityisnotcommunicativeenough”.Butwhatdoesitmeanbybeingcommunicative?Ellis(1990)haslistedsixcriteriaforevaluatingcommunicativeclassroomactivities:5.2.1CommunicativePurposeTheactivitymustinvolvethestudentsinperformingarealcommunicativepurposeratherthanjustpracticinglanguageforitsownsake.Inorderforthistooccurtheremustbesomekindsof“informationgap”thatstudentsseektobridgewhentheyarecommunicating.5.2.2CommunicativeDesireTheactivitymustcreateadesiretocommunicateinthestudents.Thatis,evenifcommunicationisforcedonthestudents,theymustfeelarealneedtocommunicate.5.2.3Content,notFormWhenthestudentsaredoingtheactivity,theymustbeconcentratingonwhattheyaresaying,nothowtheysayit.Theymusthavesome“messages”thattheywanttocommunicate.第18页共18页 5.2.4VarietyofLanguageTheactivitymustinvolvethestudentsinusingavarietyoflanguage,notjustonespecificlanguageform.Thestudentsshouldfeelfreetoimprovise,usingwhateverresourcestheychoose.5.2.5NoTeacherInterventionTheactivitymustbedesignedtobedonebythestudentsworkingbythemselvesratherthanwiththeteacher.Theactivityshouldnotinvolvetheteachercorrectingorevaluatinghowthestudentsdotheactivity,althoughitcouldinvolvesomeevaluationofthefinal“product”oftheactivitywhentheactivityisover.Thisassessmentshouldbebasedonwhetherthestudentshaveachievedtheircommunicativepurpose,notwhetherthelanguagetheyusedwascorrect.5.2.6NoMaterialsControlTheactivityshouldnotbedesignedtocontrolwhatlanguagethestudentsshoulduse.Thechoiceaboutwhatlanguagetouseshouldrestwiththestudents.VI．ProblemsandSolutionsofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingQuestionsandproblemsaboutCommunicativeLanguageTeachingstartwithitsbirth.Ifonewishesthelearnertobecomebothlinguisticallyandcommunicativelycompetent,thedevelopmentanduseofCLTarefacedwithanumberofproblems,someofwhichare:thepresentlackofknowledgeaboutconstituentsofcommunicativecompetence,speakingrules,andtherelationbetweenlinguisticformandfunction;theheavydemandsitsplacesonthelearner;andthedifficultiesofprovidinganeffectivecontextforaspeechactandgrammarseemstobeignored.6.1ItisDifficulttoCopewithLanguageFunctionsTheCommunicativeLanguageTeachingdealsprimarilywiththelanguagefunctions.Nooneclaimsthatteachinglanguagefunctionsisunnecessary.Williamsstatesthefollowingproblemsincaseofthefunctioninsistence:a.Aninsistenceonabsoluteauthenticity.Evenwiththerichandvarieduseofauthenticlanguageandmaterialsintheclassroom,theremaybesomefunctionalrestrictioninthelanguagetowhichstudentsareexposedandconsequentlyarelikelytouseandlearn.b.Anexclusivefocusoncommunication.Theemphasisonfluencyandcommunicativesuccessmaynotpushlearnerstowardaccuracy.第18页共18页 c.Alackoffocusonformininputandinstruction.Theremaybesomeformsthatinthecourseofnormalcommunicationlearnerssimplydonotnotice,eitherbecausetheyarenotsalient,orbecausetheyaresimilar,butnotidentical,toformsinthefirstlanguage.d.Alackofemphasisonform-basedfeedback.Feedbackisalsomeaningbased,ratherthanformbased,inmostCLTclassrooms.Errorcorrectionisbasedoncommunicativeandtruth-value.Asasuggestedsolution,teachercanpredictthelanguageformsthatthelearnerwilllikelyneed.Becauseteachercannotignorethelanguagefunctions,fordealingwithfunctionshasthefollowingadvantages:a.Learninggoalsmakemoresensetothelearner.(askingforinformationmustbemoreinterestingthanconvertingadeclarativesentenceintoaninterrogativeone)b.Learningprocesshasimmediatepracticalresultsrelatetoreallifec.Learnersleavingthelearningprocedurewithoutcompletingacourseetc.Stillmayhaveusefulthingsintheformoflimitedcommunicativeability.6.2GrammarSeemstobeIgnoredInrecentdecades,afewextremistshaveadvocatednoteachingofgrammarwhatsoever.Asaresult,grammarissometimesneglected.Butgrammarorformisalsoimportantbecausefocusoncertainformininstructionspeedsuptherateoflearning,provideslong-termaccuracyandraisesthelevelofattainment.Moreover,consciouslypayingattentiontofeaturesofinputandattemptingtoanalyzetheirsignificanceintermsofdeepergeneralizationsareclaimedtobehighlyfacilitative.Anappropriateamountofclasstimemightbedevotedtogrammar,andinordernottoreturntheretrospectiveapproachtogrammar,focuscanbeshiftedfrom“covering”thegrammarto“discovering”thegrammar.Learnersshouldfirstexposetonewlanguageinacomprehensiblecontext,sothattheyareabletounderstanditsfunctionandmeaning.Communicationcannottakeplaceintheabsenceofstructure,orgrammar,asetofsharedassumptionsabouthowlanguageworks,alongwithawillingnessofparticipantstocooperateinthenegotiationofmeaning.Appropriategrammarfocusingtechniques:areembeddedinmeaningful,communicativecontexts,contributepositivelytocommunicativegoals,promoteaccuracywithinfluent,communicativelanguage,donotoverwhelmstudentswithlinguisticterminology,areaslivelyandintrinsicallymotivatingaspossible.6.3ThereisanOveremphasisonSpokenLanguage第18页共18页 Therearesomefacts,forexample,oneacquires“spokenlanguage”,andinreallifehespeakmorethanhewrite.Writingrequiressomelearntpsychomotorskills,andcontrarytospeaking,writingrequirespen,paper(nowadayskeyboardprinteretc.)Besides,inpracticemostofthepeoplemakeuseofspokenlanguagewhentheygoabroadformanydifferentreasons,orwhentheyattempttospeakavisitorfromaforeigncountry.Duetotheaforementionedreasons,inlinguisticstherehasbeenaprimacytothespokenlanguage,andasearlierapproacheshadbeen,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingwasinfluencedformthisgeneralmovement.Itisimportanttorealizethatcommunicationdoesnotonlytakeplacethroughspeechandthatisnotonlythespeakerwhoiscommunicating.Communicationthroughlanguagehappensinbothhewrittenandspokenmedium,andinvolvesatleasttwopeople.Learnersreadingatextsilentlytothemaretakingpartincommunicationjustasmuchasiftheyweretalkingtotheirpartner.Somewrittencommunicativeactivitiesmayenablethelearnertotakepartinwrittencommunicativeactivities.6.4PlacesHeavyDemandsonthe(Non-Native)TeacherCommunicativeLanguageTeachingplacesgreaterdemandsontheteacherthancertainotherwidelyusedapproaches.Becausehecannotpredicteverythingclearly,hehastobereadytolistenstonotonlywhatlearnerssaybutalsohowtheysay.Besides,hehastointeractwiththeminasnaturalawayaspossible.Thesepointsimposesnon-nativeteacherahigherlevellanguageproficiency.Acommunicativeteachershouldhaveextraordinaryabilities:hightechnology,superperson-yetoffleshandblood.Heorhemustbeconfidentwithoutbeingconceited,judiciouswithoutbeingjudgmental,ingeniouswithoutbeingunbridled,technicallyskilledwithoutbeingpedantic,far-sightedwithoutbeingfar-fetched,down-to-earthwithoutbeingearth-bound,inquiringwithoutbeinginquisitive-thelistendless.ACommunicativeteachershouldalsohavetheknowledgeof“whothelearnersare”,“whattheybringtoclass”,“whytheyattendtothelesson”,“whattheirexpectationsare”.VII．HowtoImproveStudents’CommunicativeCompetenceinCLTOnepossiblesolutiontobridgethegapbetweenclassroomlanguageteachingandreallifelanguageuseistheadoptionofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching,whichhasinrecentyearsbecomeafashionabletermtocoveravarietyofdevelopmentsinthemethodologyofEnglishteaching.ThegoalofCLTistodevelopstudents’communicative第18页共18页 competence,whichincludesboththeknowledgeaboutthelanguageandtheknowledgeabouthowtousethelanguageappropriatelyincommunicativesituations.7.1CommunicativeCompetenceAccordingtoHymes(1979),communicativecompetenceincludesfouraspects:a.knowingwhetherornotsomethingisformallypossible,whichisroughlyequivalenttolinguisticcompetence;b.knowingwhethersomethingisunderstandabletohumanbeings;c.knowingwhethersomethingisinlinewithsocialnorms;d.knowingwhetherornotsomethingisinfactdone.7.2CommunicativePrincipleRichardsandRodgershavebeensuggestedthreeprinciplesa.Communicativeprinciple:Activitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning.b.Taskprinciple:Activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningfultaskspromotelearning.c.Meaningfulprinciple:Languagethatismeaningfultotheleanersupportsthelearningprocess.7.3CommunicativeTeachingStepsThetraditionalforeignlanguageteachingpaysmoreattentionto“aone-waystaticcommunicativeteachingmode”.Thestudentsbecamepassivetargets.Itproducedalotofstudentswithhighmarksbutlowcommunicativeability.Theycanpasstheexaminationeasily,buttheycan’tcommunicatefreelyinEnglish.Soteachersshouldchoose“amulti-waydynamiccommunicateteachingmode”.Buthowcanteachersmanipulatethismodeinforeignlanguageteaching.Teachersshoulddesignthefollowingstepstorealizethismode:7.3.1BuilduptheStudents’ConfidenceInordertolearnEnglishwell,communicatewell,itisnecessarytobuildupthestudents’confidence,overcomethefearofmakingmistakes,andeliminatetheshyness.Iftheprimarygoaloflanguageuseiscommunication,thenmistakesaresecondaryconsiderationsthatmaybedealtwithgraduallyasawarenessofthosemistakesincrease.Ontheotherhand,studentsshouldnotignoretheirmistakes.Theteachersshouldfindaproperwaytocorrecttheirmistakes,atbestwithmoreencouragementandlesscriticism.第18页共18页 Everyonelikestobepraisedandverysensitivetocriticism.Theywillbemoreactivewhentheyknowtheyarerespectedandappreciated,andtheywillbemoreconfident.Shystudents,havinglowself-esteem,arelikelytobepassiveandeasilyinfluencedbyothers.Soteachersmustgivethemmoreconfidenceandhelpthemtoovercomeshyness.It’sveryimportantforthemtoaccepttheirweaknessesaswellastheirstrengths.“Errorsmakeaman”.7.3.2SetupaCommunicativeSituationCommunicativeLanguageTeachingmakesuseofreal-lifesituationsthatnecessitatecommunication.Teachersseektoplacestudentsinasituationwheretheyareaskedtotakeondifferentrolesandtoaccomplishtheirspecifictasks,includingproblemsolving.Theyofferanopportunityforstudentstopracticeusingthelanguageintherightplace,attherighttime,asappropriatelyaspossible.Thestrengthofasimulationisthatitpresentsanopportunityforauthenticandspontaneouscommunicationbecausestudentsareplacedinrealisticandcommunicativesituations.Theteachersetsupasituationthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterinreallife.Thereal-lifesituationschangefromdaytoday.Students’motivationtolearncomesfromtheirdesiretocommunicateinmeaningfulwaysaboutmeaningfultopics.7.3.3GetStudentstoListenMoreandGiveMoreChance,ActasaMonitorTeachersinCommunicativeLanguageTeachingmustlistenmore.Theteacherssetuptheexercise,butthestudents’performanceisthegoal.Sotheteachermustsetbackandobservestudents,sometimesactingasamonitor.AnEnglishclassduringacommunicativeactivityisnotquiet.Thestudentsdomostofspeakingandtalking,andtheclassroomduringacommunicativeexerciseisactive.Toparticipate,thestudentsmayfindtheygainconfidenceinusingthetargetlanguage.Studentsaremoreresponsiblemanagersoftheirownlearning.Inthisway,thestudentscanusetargetlanguagetocommunicateandimprovetheircommunicativelanguageabilities.7.3.4GiveStudentsSpeakingTasksTherearethreebasicreasonswhyitisagoodideatogivestudentsspeakingtasks,whichprovokethemtouse.a.Rehearsal.Gettingstudentstohaveafreediscussiongivesthemachancetorehearsehavingdiscussionsoutsidetheclassroom.Havingthemtakepartinarole-playatanairportcheck-indeskallowsthemtorehearsesuchareal-lifeeventinthesafetyoftheclassroom.Thisisnotthesameaspracticeinwhichmoredetailedstudytakesplace;insteaditisawayforstudentstogetthefeelofwhatcommunicatingintheforeignlanguagereallyfeelslike.第18页共18页 b.Feedback.Speakingtaskswherestudentsaretryingtouseallandanylanguagetheyknowprovidesfeedbackforbothteacherandstudents.Teacherscanseehowwelltheirclassisdoingandwhatlanguageproblemstheyarehaving.Studentscanalsoseehoweasytheyfindaparticularkindofspeakingandwhattheyneedtodotoimprove.Speakingactivitiescangivethemenormousconfidenceandsatisfaction,andwithsensitiveteacherguidancecanencouragethemintofurtherstudy.c.Engagement.Goodspeakingactivitiescanandshouldbehighlymotivating.Ifallthestudentsareparticipatingfullyandiftheteacherhassetuptheactivityproperlyandcanthengivesympatheticandusefulfeedback,theywillgettremendoussatisfactionfromit.Manyspeakingtasks(role-playing,discussion,problem-solvingetc)areintrinsicallyenjoyableinthemselves.7.3.5OutsideClassTrainingThereisnowaytolearnasecondlanguagewithoutdevotingtimetoit,notjustagoodblockoftimeeachday,butratherasignificantsegmentoutofthelearner’slife’sothestudentsjustcommunicateinclassarenotenough.Asateacher,shouldadvisethestudentstocommunicatesayspeakmore.Therearesomeadviceforstudents:a.SayinEnglishtoyourselfwhateveryouseeorhear.It’sagoodwaytotraintheearsandthemouth.b.AttendingEnglishcornerisalsoagoodwaytotraintheCommunicativeEnglish.StudentswillbegiventhechanceofextendingtheirrangeinEnglish,bygettingfamiliarwithEnglishspokenindifferentaccents.If,bychance,therearenativespeakersofEnglisharound,studentsshouldtrytobecomefamiliarwithalltheshortcutstheytakewhenspeaking.c.Listentonewsbroadcastsorotherradio，TVprogramsinEnglish.Trytofollowthemsentence-by-sentence.7.3.6MoreLanguageUsethanAnalysisThegrammar-translationmethodhasagreatimpactontheformationofstudents’studyhabit.Toomanyexercisesingrammaranalysishaveinterferedwiththestudents’reasoningpowerandhaveformedforthemahabitofdelvingtoodeeplyintotheminutiaeintheirlearning.Theyareloserswhenfacedwithopportunitiestousethelanguageforawell-definedcommunicativepurpose.Instead,atask-orientedapproachmaybeabettersubstitute.Intask-orientedactivities,studentsareforcedtogrope,findandsometimeseveninventthelanguagenecessaryforthecompletionofthetask,butfinallythey“learnhowtomean”fromamoreactivestance.Whileperformingthetasksinpairsoringroups,studentsareencouragedtodevelopfluencyastheyhavearealneedtocommunicatein第18页共18页 ordertocompletethetasks.Thestudentscanbetaughttolearnlanguageskillsrequiredbytherealneedforcommunication.7.3.7TeachersShouldMakethatTeachingInterestingandExcitingThereisaconsensusthatinterestisthebestteacherofstudents.Itseemstousthatitisquitedifficultforateachertogetstudentsinvolvedin45minuteinteractionatthebeginningofeach“ExperienceEnglish”unit.AmiddleschoolEnglishteachershouldbeaconstantinformationproviderwhoalwayspreparedwithnew,interestingpresentation,whichwillilluminateandencouragedeepthinking.Whyshouldwehavetodoitthatway?Becauseinthe21stcentury,gettinginformationismucheasierthandealingwithit.Therearesomanywaysforpeopletogetinformation.Besides,teachersalwaysrequitestudentsnotonlytoreaddiversekindsofEnglishmaterials,suchasperiodicals,magazinesandnewspapers,butalsotosurftheInternet.Therefore,itisineffectiveandwastefulifwecan’textendstudents’horizonsofthinkingduringa45-minuteEnglishclass,letalonenotinterestingourstudentsandnotcultivatingtheircommunicativecompetence.Oneofthemostimportantstrategiesforateacheristostimulateherstudents’desireforcommunicationandbereadytoparticipateinaninterestingclassdiscussion.7.3.8StimulateandGuideStudentstoTryTheirOwnLearningStyleTeachingandlearningprocessesareinseparable.Itisnotaneasyjobforstudentstolearneffectively.Apartfromintellectualfactors,therearemanyotheraspectswhichinfluencesuccessfullearning.StudentsthemselvesarealreadyaccustomedtotheoldwayoflearningEnglish.Themostessentialstrategy,teachersshouldcarryoutinpresent-dayclassroomteachingistoassiststudentstochallengeold-fashionedwaysoflearningalanguageandtoacceptnewmoreeffectiveways.Solvingthisexistingproblemundertheguidanceofanenlightenedteachercangreatlydevelopthestudents’overallcompetence.ThedutyofateachertohelpherstudentstodiscoverthebestormostsuitablewaytolearnEnglish.VIII．ConclusionTheteachingofforeignlanguageshasbeeninvolvedformanycenturies.Linguistsandlanguageteachershavedevelopeddifferentteachingapproachesandmethods,especiallyinthetwentiethcentury.AmongtheteachingmethodspracticedinChina,CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)isgivenmostconsideration.Thismethodisveryimportantinforeignlanguageteaching.ItcanbeinferredthattolearnEnglishistoacquireavehiclecommunicate,emphasisshouldbelaidoncultivatingstudents’第18页共18页 communicativeability;teachingandlearningmustmeettheneedsofstudents,whoareledtolearnhowtouseinreallifewhattheyhavelearned;theultimateobjectiveofapplyingcommunicativeapproachistocultivatestudents’communicativeability,whichisthefinalgoalofEnglishteaching;thecoreoftheCLTmethodis“usinglanguagetolearn”and“learningtouselanguage”.Also,itcanbeinferredthatmanythingsareconnectedwitheachother,sothesuccessfuluseofcommunicativeteachingapproachdependsontheconfidenceandmotivationofthestudents,dependsontheteachingatmosphereoftheEnglishclass,dependsontheauthenticityofthematerialsandeventheculturaloreducationalbackgroundofthestudents.Accordingly,itishopedthatcommunicativeteachingapproachwillbemorewidelyusedinmiddleschoolEnglishclass.Englishshouldbelearnedandtaughtaccordingtolanguageuseinreallifesothatstudentswilldevelopcommunicativecompetence,whichistheabilitytouselanguageappropriatelyinsocialsituation.Theteachersshouldapplythiscommunicativemethodappropriatelyandbravely.Thus,theycanraisethequalityofjuniorEnglishteachingbetterandachievetheultimateobjectiveofteaching.References1.BaoJiaren,1992.Teachinguseinuse[A].ELTinChina.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.2.Brumfit,C.J.1978,CommunicativeLanguageTeaching:aneducationalperspective[A].TheCommunicativeApproachtoLanguageTeaching.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress.3.Brumfit,C.J.&K.Johnson,1979.TheCommunicativeApproachtoLanguageTeaching[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.4.FuJianghua,1995.CanthecommunicativeapproachbeappliedinChineseschool?[A].ThesisCollection.Sicuan:SciencePress.5.HuangLiping,1996.HowtomaketheELTclassroommorecommunicative[A].ECTinChina.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.6.Hymes,D.1971.OnCommunicativeCompetence[M].Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.7.ShiXiaochun,2004.DevelopingstudentscommunicativecompetenceinEnglishclass[A].LanguageTeachingResearch.Beijing:SciencePress.8.ShiXiaochun,2004.TeacherrolesinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching[A].LanguageTeachingResearch.Beijing:SciencePress.第18页共18页 9.SunLi,1985.Thecommunicativeapproach:ourdebtandobligation[A].ECTinChina.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.10.WangJianheng,2004.ApplyingCLTmethodinEnglish-teachingclassroom[J].Sino-USEnglishTeaching.Sep,2005.Volume2.No.9(SerialNo.2).11.Widdowson,H.G.1978.TeachingLanguageasCommunication[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.12.ZhengZhanguo,2004.Communicativecompetenceandstrategiccompetence[J].Sino-USEnglishTeaching.Oct,2004.Volume1.No.10(SerialNo.9).13.封亚东老师在交际语言教学法的课堂中的角色[C]《英语教学论丛》北京：高等教育出版社1996.14.胡春洞《英语教学法》[M].北京：高等教育出版社1994.15.王兰英论语言、交际能力及其培养《教海采珠》[C].四川：成都科技大学出版社1995.16.王蔷《英语教学法教程》[M].北京：高等教育出版社2000.17.张正懂,黄泰铨《英语教学法双语教程》[M].北京：科技出版社1999.8.18.郑声衡,郑声滔《教海采珠》[C].四川：成都科技大学出版社2000.第18页共18页
