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ContrastiveAnalysisonInterculturalBusinessCommunicationbetweenChinaandAmerica中美跨文化商务交流的对比分析AbstractThisthesisstudiesthefactorswhichinfluenceInterculturalBusinessCommunicationbetweenChinaandAmericafromtheaspectsofpastOrientationvs.futureOrientation,individualismvs.collectivism,largepowerdistancevs.smallpowerdistance,stronguncertaintyavoidancevs.weakuncertaintyavoidance,highcontextculturesvs.lowcontextculturesandmonochromictimeculturevs.polychromictimeculture.TheunderstandingofCommunicationculturallywillmakeeffectivecommunication.Inthispaper,itwillmakeacontractiveanalysisoninterculturalbusinesscommunicationbetweenChinaandAmerica.Althoughthesesixareascanonlyreflectthetipoftheicebergconcerningthedifferencesincross-culturalbusinesscommunication,thepaperhopestomakepeoplefullyawareoftheimportanceofthesedifferencesbycontinuallydiscussingtheirimpactsonbusinessnegotiation,businessetiquetteandsomeother.KeyWords:interculturalbusinesscommunication;contrastiveanalysis;culturaldifference摘要本文将从六个方面对中美跨文化商务交际的影响因素作对比分析，包括过去取向和未来取向、个人主义和集体主义、大权距和小权距、对不确定强回避性和弱回避性、高语境和低语境文化模式以及多元时间模式和单一时间模式。理解文化交流的差异将使沟通更加有效。在这篇文章中,将对比分析中国和美国之间的跨文化商务交际。虽然这六个方面不能反映跨文化商务交际的全部差异，但作者希望通过讨论这六个方面的差异对商务谈判、商务礼仪等所造成的影响来使得人们充分认识到这种差异的重要性。关键词：跨文化商务交际；对比分析；文化差异 1.IntroductionThereexistsomanydifferencesamongcountriesincultures,wayofthinking,value,andworldviewsthatmakescross-culturalbusinesscommunicationbecomescomplicatedanddifficultwhichmayresultsinembarrassandfailure.ChinaandAmericaarebothbigcountriesintheworld.Theyareplayinganimportantroleonthepoliticalandeconomicstageoftheworld.Thecommunicationbetweenthepeoplefromthetwocountriesistotheworldpeaceandthehealthydevelopmentofinternationaleconomy.Theunderstandingofbodylanguageculturallywillmakeeffectivecommunication.Throughstudy,itcomestotheconclusionthatthestudyofbodylanguagebetweenculturesisanimportantwaytopromotethegoodcommunicationbetweenChinaandAmerica(Xin,2012).Thefieldsofcommunications,journalism,andmediastudies,however,havebeenslowerinpayingattentiontothechangingstate,consumer,andcitizenmedialandscapesofthisboomingnation(Parameswaran,2010),eventhoughithastakenamoreimportantroleintheglobalmediascape(Straubhaar,2010).ChinaandAmericaaredistinctinlanguages,customs,behaviors,valuesandmanyotheraspects.ItisthemanydifferencesbetweenChineseandAmericanthatconstitutetheirowndistinctculture(Wang,2013).Peoplecometorealizethathowtostartbusinesswithapartnerofdifferentculturalbackgroundandhowtosolvethecommunicationbarrierscausedbyculturaldifferenceswillplayakeyroleinfuturebusiness.2.LiteratureReview2.1CommunicationAsEdeani(1988)remarked,‘inmasscommunicationresearch,asinotheraspectsofthescientificenterprise,occasionalstock-takingisnecessaryasameansofevaluatingprogress,detectingproblems,anddescribingfuturedirections’.Sincethen,countlessothershavebeenaddedtotheirlist.Fromtheaboveanalysis,wecanseethatthebasicassumptionis:Communicationisaformofhumanbehaviorderivedfromaneedtoconnectandinteractwithotherhumanbeings.Therefore,communicationsimplyreferstotheactandprocessofsendingandreceivingmessagesamongpeople. 2.2DefinitionofInterculturalCommunicationItismostlyreferstoanacademicfieldofstudyorresearchandinreturnthoseacademicresultsarethenappliedtoreallifesolutions.Thus,educatorshavesomenewideas.Wang(2008)pointsoutthatinterculturalcommunicationisquitecomprehensive,inadditiontounderstandthebasicdefinition,differentbehavior,studentsshouldalsoacceptcourseofcorporatecultureandinterculturaltraining.Also,Wang(2011)addsthatstudentsshouldbeencouragedtoexplorethenatureofreasonsfordifference,suchasthedifferentoriginsofWesternculture,adifferentmodeofthinking,normsandvalues.However,eventhoughthephenomenonofinterculturalcommunicationisasoldashumansociety,thestudyofinterculturalcommunicationasasubjectisfairlyashorthistorywhichstartedintheU.S.fromearly1950sand80sinChina(Mu,2007).Therefore,thereisstillalongwaytogoconcerningtheresearchesinthisfield.2.3InterculturalBusinessCommunicationBusinessCommunicationreferstopurposefulexchangeofinformationandresources,mutualsupportandcontactbetweentwoormorepartiestopromotemutuallybeneficialrelationshipforpersonalandbusinesssuccess(Liu,2008).Meanwhile;Cui(2007)definedinterculturalbusinesscommunicationasexchangesamongbusinessindividualsorsocialgroupswithdifferentculturalbackgroundsinordertoachieveexchangeofeconomicorbusinessinformation.Liu(2008)suggestedthatitbasicallyincludesbusinessetiquette,businessnegotiations,businesscontracts,etc.AsShiLia&ShuoTang(2012)pointsout,“Ininteractingwithforeigners,nativesspeakerstendtoberathertolerantoferrorsinpronunciationorsyntax.Incontrast,violationofrulesofspeaking,communicationandbehaviorisofteninterpretedasbadmannerssincethenativespeakerisunlikelytobeawareofsociolinguisticrelativity.”Interculturalbusinesscommunicationbarriersrefertomisunderstandingsencounteredintheprocessofinformationexchangewhichleadtotheembarrassmentorculturalshockevenculturalcollision.MU(2007)makesadetailedanalysisinthe differenceofbusinessEtiquetteandprotocol，theattitudetomanagementandbusinessnegotiation.Ontheotherhand,Wang(2009)summarizedthebarriersofInterculturalBusinessCommunicationinthefollowingareas:first,theculturalconflictsuchasculturalshockattable:hospitableorover-warmheartedandculturalconflictinnegotiation:courtesyorhypocrisy;secondthedifferencesofculturalpatternslikecollectivismandindividualismculturalpatterns,high-contextandlow-contextcommunicationculturalpatterns.3.ContrastiveAnalysisonInterculturalBusinessCommunicationInthispart,Iwouldliketodiscussonebyonein-depthanddetailwhatIhavementionedabovetheinterculturalbusinesscommunicationdifferenceinthesixaspects:pastOrientationvs.futureOrientation,individualismvs.collectivism,largepowerdistancevs.smallpowerdistance,stronguncertaintyavoidancevs.weakuncertaintyavoidance,highcontextculturesvs.lowcontextculturesandmonochromictimeculturevs.polychromictimeculture.3.1PastOrientationvs.FutureOrientation3.1.1DefinitionandTraitsPastorientationisatypicalvalueorientationinChineseculture.Chinaisacountrywithalonghistory,aresplendentcivilizationandtradition.Chinesepeopleareveryproudoftheirfive-thousand-yearcivilizationandtheirintelligentanddiligentancestorswhocreatedsuchasplendidculture.Onthecontrary,futureorientationprevailsinthewesternculture.Westernpeopletendtobelievethatfutureshouldbegranderandnicerthanthepresent.3.1.2CommunicationbarrierWorddifferencesareobviousinvariouslanguages.Therelationbetweenwordanditsmeaningisarbitrary.Thereisastrongbeliefthatthe"past"shouldbetheguideofmakingdecisionsanddiscoveringtruths.Correspondinglytheword"old"usuallysymbolizesexperienceandauthority.Therefore,inChineseadvertising,advertisersusuallyprefertoemphasizethattheircompaniesandtheirproductshavesomehistory,suchasashopwithahistoryofahundredyears.Age-oldbrand,oldnominalfather,withalonghistoryandatraditionalrecipehandeddownfrom generationtogeneration.Theword"old"isassociatedwith"lettingbehind"and"uselessness",whiletheword"new"isrelatedtoprogress,changeandchallenge.Sotheword“new”isoftenemployedinEnglishadvertising.AccordingtoLeech‘sstatistic,“theword‘new’isthewordmostfrequentlyusedinEnglishadvertisements.”Almosteverythingthatis"new"isvaluedandthusacceptablebywesterners.3.1.3SuggestionsItisimporttolearnthedifferenceofculturalforthepurposeofavoidinginvasionorembarrassmentandinsomesenseitisshowingyourrespectforyourbusinesspartner.IfyouaredoingbusinessinacountryoffutureOrientation,pleaserememberthatyoucan'tdependonthepastforanswers.AsfutureOrientation,youareexpectedtoworkonthefutureanduseyourinitiative.3.2Individualismvs.Collectivism3.2.1DefinitionandTraitsIndividualismculturalmodelwhichisstressedinAmericavaluestheimportanceofindividualandviewindividualityandindividualrightsascritical.JustasWang(2009)namedit“Iambornuseful”or“I“culture.Livinginthisculturalcontext,peoplearewillingandencouragedtoexpressdifferentideasandpublicdissentisrespected.Therefore,peopleprefertobeindependentandautonomyjustasthesayinggoes:onecanalwayslistentoothers,buttheonemakesthechoiceisalwaysyourself.CollectivisminChinavaluesthegroupmorethanindividualsuchascountry,family,tribe,etc.Confucian’sClassicofRitesdescribestheharmonioussocietyastheageofgreatharmony:peopleshouldputtheirowncountryatthefirstplace(Pan,2013).Ifnecessary,theinterestofcollectivismmaybekeptattheexpenseofindividualinterestsanddesiresandaspirationsinthissituationshouldbecurbedforthegoodofthegroupandthosewhodidthatwaywillbedeemedasahero.Thereisagoodsayingcorrectlyexpressthecollectivism:Withouttheskin,towhichcanthehairadhere?3.2.2Communicationbarrier Manybarriersmayderivefromthisculturaldifference.Atypicalexampleistreatingsomeoneonthedinner.Chinesepeoplewouldliketotreatothersondinnerassplendidaspossiblewithoutconsideringthetasteofguestanddonotcareaboutwastingfoodbecausetheythink“everyonefeelinggoodisrealgood.”However,Americanscarespersonalfeelingmorethancollective,theyprefertohaveapartyorbarbecueontheseasideorenjoyadinnerathome.Anotherexampleistheprivatesecret.Americanscorehighlypersonalprivacy,theyusuallylikekeepingapersonalspaceanddonothopeotherstointerface.Therefore,directlylookingatthetablebusinessletterofbusinesspartnerswithoutpermissionaskingthepriceofclothes,questionthemwages,agesisnotwelcomeevendisgusted.Alsoyoumayseethebarriersinoffice.Chinesepeoplemakedecisionsupontheagreementofmostpeople;theymaydiscussalotandarriveatthedecisionafteralongtime.ButAmericanencouragedifferentideaandeveryonecouldargueandfightforhisownideas;theymaysolveaprobleminhighefficiencywithoutachievingmostapproval.3.2.3SuggestionsPrepareyourselfforabusinessenvironmentthatmaybelessreliantonrelationshipsandpersonalcontacts.Businessandpersonallifemayverywellbekeptseparate.Employeesorsubordinateswillexpectthechancetoworkonprojectsorsolveissuesindependently.Beingintrusiveintotheirworkmaybeinterpretednegatively.Keepitinmindthatacertainamountofindividualexpressionistoleratedsuchaspeople'sappearance,behaviorbutnotageandmarriageevenfamily.Andforthosewhoaredoingbusinessinacountrywithhighcollectivism,thesuggestionsgoasfollows:notethatindividualswillhaveastrongsenseofresponsibilityfortheirfamilywhichcanmeantheytakeprecedenceoverbusiness.Rememberthatpraiseshouldalwaysbedirectedtoateamratherthanindividualsasotherwisethismaycausepeopleembarrassment.Rewardteamsalwaysfirstthangroupmember.Understandthatpromotionsdependuponseniorityandexperience-notperformanceandachievement.3.3LargePowerDistancevs.SmallPowerDistance 3.3.1DefinitionandTraitsPowerdistanceistheextenttowhichlesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganizationswithinacountryexpectandacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally.Generally,highpowerdistanceindicatesthatinequalitiesofpowerandwealthhasbeenallowedtogrowwithinthesocietyinacountrywhereasinlowscoringcountriesthesocietyde-emphasizesthedifferencebetweencitizen’spowerandwealth,therefore,qualityandopportunityarealwaysstressed.Stillanotherway,highpowerdistanceculturevalueshierarchicalsystemsandrespectforauthoritybutlowpowerdistancestressthequalityofthewholesociety.Therefore,thisculturemodelrelatestothedegreeofequalityorinequalitybetweenpeopleinacountry'ssociety.3.3.2BarriersandSuggestionsFranklytosay,theChineseculturetendstobelargepowerdistanceandAmericanontheopposite.JusttakeanexampleofYaoming.Ontheretirementpressconference,YaoandhisfamilytookphotoswithChineseandAmericanleaders.Wecanseethat,whentookphotowithChineseleader,theleaderswerealwaysstandinginthemiddle,andtheothersintwosides.However,whenlookatanotherpicture,wefindthatYaoandhisfamilystoodinthemiddleandtheleaderswereonthetwosides.Fromthis,youcanunderstandtherespectforauthorityinChinabutnotinAmerica.3.3.3SuggestionsAsforthesuggestion,Iwouldliketosaysomethingofmanagement.Ifyoudobusinessinlargepowerdistancecountries,rememberthattherelationbetweenbossandsubordinateisstrictlyruledanddependentonthedecisionsoftheboss.Therehascentralizedorganization;privilegesareseenasdesirablebysuperiorsandthesalaryrangeiswide.Therefore,excepthardwork,youshouldalsolearntokeepgoodrelationshipwithyourbossandawardyourbossfirstonceyougetanyawards.However,inlowdistanceculture,bossesandsubordinatesworkclosetogetherandconsulteachother.Yoursalarydependsonhardworkandability.Thus,youshouldlearntoworkinateamandkeepenergeticaswellasdiligentifyouwanttosucceed. 3.4StrongUncertaintyAvoidancevs.WeakUncertaintyAvoidance3.4.1DefinitionandTraitsUncertaintyavoidanceisaculturalindexderivedbyDutchsociologistGeertHofstede.Itmeasuresanation'spreferenceforstrictlawsandregulationsoverambiguityandrisk.Thatistosay,inacountryofstronguncertaintyavoidance,peoplehavelowertoleranceforuncertaintyandambiguitywhichcanbeseenfromitsbeingarule-orientedsociety.Onthecontrary,peopleinweakuncertaintycountryaremorereadytoacceptriskanduncertainty.Accordingtotheuncertaintyavoidanceindex,Americascores46andChinahavealowerscoreof40.Therefore,Chinesepeopleseemtobemoreabletotolerateuncertainty.3.4.2BarriersandSuggestionsPersonally,IthinkChinamoretendtobeweakuncertaintyavoidancethanAmerica.Chinesepeoplehavebeenruledinfeudalsocietyfornearly2000yearswhichmadethembetolerantwithinequalityandkeepsilenttosocialproblems.Recently,alotoftragedieshappenarounduswhichfinallyarousethepublic’ssuppressedanger.Thenationalfoodsocietycannotbeproved,wearescaringofexcessivefoodadditivesinbread,milk,eggs;thelifeofweakpeoplecannotbesaved,Eventhepublictrustforgovernmentisshockedbytheaccidentofrailderailmentjustafewdaysago.Yet,theAmericancaneasilybeunderstoodaslowuncertainty.Theyprizeinitiative,dislikethestructureassociatedwithhierarchyandmorewillingtotakerisks.Andtheyaremoreflexible,prefertohaveasfewrulesaspossible,anddependnotsomuchonexpertsasonthemselves.ButstillIwouldliketomentionthatlevelofproductivityisthebaseofsocialprogresswhichwasputforwardbyKarlMax.Heisright,thenewerproductivityrequestnewerrelationofproductionaswellassuperstructure.3.4.3SuggestionsOntheonehand,ifyouareworkingordoingbusinessinacountrywithstrongeruncertaintyavoidance,donotexpectnewideas,waysormethodstobereadily embraced.Youneedtoallowtimetohelpdevelopanunderstandingofaninitiativetohelpfosterconfidenceinit;involvelocalcounterpartsinprojectstoallowthemasenseofunderstanding.Thisthendecreasestheelementoftheunknown.Ifpeoplefeelthattheuncertaintyorriskarenotfullyincontrol,theymaybepossiblylesswillingtomakedecisionsunlessbeingsureoftheunknown.Ontheotherhand,ifyouareworkingordoingbusinessinacountrywithaloweruncertaintyavoidance,trytobemoreflexibleoropeninyourapproachtonewideasthanyoumaybeusedto.Peoplethereappreciateandencouragepublicsuggestionsandnewideasespeciallycreativity.Befriendswithyoursubordinates,workwiththemtogetheranddonotinterfereintotheirownpartsonceyouhavemadegooddistributionofwork.3.5Highcontextculturesvs.Lowcontextculture3.5.1DefinitionandTraitsThedefinitionisbasedonBeyondCulturewrittenbyEdwardT.Ha.Asexplainedahighcontext(HC)communicationisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationiseitherinthephysicalcontextorinternalizedinperson,whileverylittleinthecoded,explicit,transmittedpartofthemessage;alow-context(LC)communicationisjusttheopposite,themassofinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode(Wang,2009).3.5.2BarriersandSuggestionsFromthisdefinitionwecanperceivethatahighcontextculture(inChina)rarelyusestraightforwardlanguagetocommunicate,asubtlehintofmovementwillsendmessage.Bodylanguagesuchasfacialexpressions,gestures,postureanddecorativelanguageareoftenusedinhigh-context.TheChineseoldpoetsaretypicalexamples.Everythingaroundthemcanbeamessagesenderoftheirmood,thought.Meanwhile,thepoemisjustquitefewwordsbutitcontainsalotofmeaningsincludingasound,amovementandthewriter’sthought.Therefore,itisverysubtlebutwealsothinkitmeaningfulandelegant.3.5.3SuggestionsChinesepeopleappreciatethat“silenceisgolden”and“silenceisbetterthanspeaking”.However,theAustraliansbelievethat"wordsarethebestgiftGodhas giventoman”(Cui,2007).Thus,wecanalwaysfindthatforeignersaretalkingalotandenergeticbutChinesepeopletendtobequiteandgentle.Generally,todobusinesswithaforeignerisquitesimple,honestyisverycritical.Everythingwillbewelldiscussedandwrittenintoacontractbeforeanybusinesscanbedone.Theyhaveexplicitlawswhichstipulatedindividualrightsandobligations.Therefore,justmakefriendswithyourforeignerbusinesspartnerandeverythingclearisok.3.6MonochromicTimeCulturevs.PolychromicTimeCulture3.6.1DefinitionandTraitsMonochromic(suchasAmerica)timeculturemeansthatthingsaredoneoneatatimeandtimeissegmentedintoprecise,smallunits.Therefore,timeisscheduled,arrangedandmanaged.Differently,polychromictimecultureisasystemwhereseveralthingscanbedoneatasametime,andamorefluidapproachistakentoplantime(Wikipedia)Accordingtothisdefinition,weknowthatbothofthemreferstothewayweperceivetime,structureourtimeandreacttotimewhichgreatlyaffectsourlifestyles,dailyagendasandbusiness.3.6.2BarriersandSuggestionsFirstly,monochromicculturessetschedulesfortheiractivitiesnamelyameeting,avisit,abreaktime.Theyemphasizeadeadlineforawork,trytofinisheverythinginplanandaccomplishingtasksbyfollowingprotocol.Conversely,polychromicculturesusepolychromictime,placinghighervalueondevelopingrelationshipsratherthangettingaprojectfinishedbyacertaindeadline.Secondly,timeismoneyvs.lateisok:monochromictimeisrootedintheIndustrialRevolution,theyplaceahighvalueonschedulesanddividedtimeintoeveryhour,minuteevensecond.However,incountryofpolychromictime,peopledonotsomuchcherishtimeanditissaidtobedeeplysteppedintraditionalculture.Theymayarrangemanythingsatonceandevenaddanotherappointmentwhenthefirstoneisnotyetfinished.3.6.3Suggestions AsImentionedabove,AmericanandChinesehavedifferentperceptionoftimeandschedule,thereforeitisnotstrangetofindconflictioniftheyworktogether.Forexample,thephysicianisinahurry(Mono-time),butthepatientwantstochat(Poly-time),or,thesalespersonrushestoclosethedeal(Mono-time)andignorestheprospect’sdesiretogetfurtheracquainted(Poly-time).Anotheroneisthedifferenceoftimetable.Americanwillscheduleameetingforaspecifictime,suchas4:15p.m.,andexpectallinvolvedpartiestobepunctual.However,inChina,youmayalwaysheardthosewordslike"Iamnotsure,sometimeintheafternoon."4.ConclusionWediscussedsixdifferentculturemodelsinbusinesscommunicationbetweenAmericaandChinese.Cultureisalwaysthecentraltopicanditcanarousepeopletoseekcommongroundswithothers.Studentsshouldinitiativelylearntoequipthemselveswiththiscapabilityandteachershavetheunshakableresponsibilitytodeliverthistothestudentsinagoodway(Tang,2014).AndIBChasthismagiceffecttomakebusinessgoonmoresmoothlyandsuccessfully.Thisisatimeofintegrationandthisisaworldofcommunicationamongdifferentcultures,customs,habits,andpeople.Inaworldofbusiness,peopledonotjustdobusinessthatsimply.Peopleexchangetheirthoughts,theirminds,theirideasandtheyseekcommoninterests,commongrounds,comepartnerswhocanactivelysharewhattheyeachhavewitheachother.TheoverseasIBCsituationisnotanalyzedindetailbecauseofthelackofresourcesandrealdata.Hopefullyinthefuture,ifthewritercanreachawiderrangeandcollectmoreinformationbothhomeandabroad,thentheconclusionandresearchcanbemoreprofoundandpersuasive. 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