批评隐喻分析视角下美国总统就职演讲中隐喻的研究

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万方数据AStudyofMetaphorsinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses--FromthePerspectiveofCriticalMetaphorAnalysisRuanZhaomeiSupervisor：Prof．WangXiangyunSubmittedtoTheSchoolofForeignLanguagesandLiteratureInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMasterofArtsShandongUniversityJinan，ChinaApril，2015 万方数据原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下，独立进行研究所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的科研成果。对本文的研究作出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本声明的法律责任由本人承担。论文作者签名：落_2搜：篡Et期：赶丛：厶：堡关于学位论文使用授权的声明本人完全了解山东大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留或向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅：本人授权山东大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或其他复制手段保存论文和汇编本学位论文。(保密论文在解密后应遵守此规定)论文作者签名：拯避：赵导师签名： 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文一ContentsAbstract．⋯．．⋯．．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯1摘要⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．iiiListofFigures．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．．ivListofTables⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．VChapterOneIntroduction⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．11．1ResearchBackground⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯11．2RationaleofthePresentStudy⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯．．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯31．3PurposeandSignificance．．⋯⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯．．．．．z4．1．4OrganizationoftheThesis⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯5ChapterTwoLiteratureReview．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．72．1TraditionalViewofMetaphor．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．72．1．1ComparisonTheory．．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．．72．1．2SubstitutionTheory．．⋯．⋯．⋯．．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯．82．1．3InteractionTheory．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．．⋯⋯．．．92．2ConceptualMetaphorTheory．⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．．1()2．2．1WorkingMechanismofConceptualMetaphor．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．102．2．2CharacteristicsofConceptualMetaphor．⋯．⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．．⋯．．⋯．．⋯⋯．．．122．2．3ExperientialBasis⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯142．3CriticalMetaphorAnalysis⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．152．3．1DefinitionsofMetaphorinCMA⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯162．3．2MetaphorandCriticalDiscourseAnalysis⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．172．3．3CriticalModelforMetaphorResearch⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．182．3．4StagesofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯202．4MetaphorinPoliticalDiscourses⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．212．4．1MetaphorandPoliticalLanguage⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯212．4．2PreviousStudiesofMetaphorinPoliticalDiscourses⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯一23ChapterThreeMethodology⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯27 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文3．1ResearchQuestions⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．273．2CorpusDescription⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯283．3ResearchMethodsandProcedure⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．28ChapterFourResultsandDiscussion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．314．1IdentifyingMetaphorCategoriesinAPIAs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．314．2InterpretingConceptualMetaphorsinAPIAs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．334．2。1WarMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．334．2．2JourneyMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．354．2．3Humanmetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．384．2．4BuildingMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．414．2．5FamilyMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．454．2．6OtherMetaphorCategories⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．484．3ExplainingMetaphorChangesfromaDiachronicPerspective⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．524．3．1GeneralDistributionofMetaphors⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．524．3．2DiachronicDistributionofWarMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．534．3．3DiachronicDistributionofJourneyMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．564．3．4DiachronicDistributionofHumanmetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．594．3．5DiachronicDistributionofBuildingMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．604．3．6DiachronicDistributionofFamilyMetaphor⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．624。4Summary⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯63ChapterFiveConclusion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．665．1MajorFindingsoftheStudy⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．665．2LimitationsandSuggestions⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯67References⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．69Acknowledgements⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．73 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文AbstractMetaphorhasbeenstudiedformorethantwothousandyears，frombeingregardedasapurerhetoricdevicetobeingredefinedaSacognitivephenomenon．ThepublicationofMetaphorsWeLiveByofLakoffandJohnsoninthe1980susheredintheConceptualMetaphorTheory．Sincethen，thetheoryhaSbeenwidelyappliedtotheexplorationofideologiesinpoliticaldiscourses，foritclaimsthatmetaphor,asawayofunderstandingtheworld，catleffectivelyrevealideaSandthoughtsofhumanbeings．However，Charteris—Blackarguedthatthecognitiveapproachonlyconcemshowmetaphorsareinterpretedbasedonindividualexperienceandneglecttheinfluenceofsocialcontextoncertainmetaphorchoices．HeproposedanewmodelofCriticalMetaphorAnalysisthatmainlycombinesthetheoreticalresultsofConceptualMetaphorTheoryandCriticalDiscourseAnalysis．Theinnovationofthisapproachistoresearchmetaphorfromabroaderview--explaininghowparticularmetaphorchoicesaremadetoachievepersuasionbyconsideringnotonlyindividualfactorsbutalsosocialresources．ThepresentstudytakesAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses(APIAs)from1949to2013astheresearchobject．ItisdesignedtoexploremetaphorapplicationinAPIAsfrombothasynchronicanddiachronicperspectivesundertheframeworkofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis．Thestudyisconductedinthreestages：metaphorsarefirstidentifiedandgroupedintodifferentcategoriesaccordingtotheirsourcedomains；next，theunderlyingconceptualmetaphorsaregeneralizedanddetailedanalysisisgiventointerpretthemappingmechanism；finally,thereaSonsformetaphorchangesareaccountedforwithinthesocialandhistoricalcontextbyobservingthediachronicdistributionsofmetaphor．TheresultsshowthattheidentifiedmetaphorsinAPIAsCanbegroupedintoeightcategories．Theyarerespectivelyfromthesourcedomainsofwar,journey,human,building，family,light／fire，weatherandstage．Fromthosemetaphorcategories，elevenconceptualmetaphorsaregeneralized．Theyareallstructuredasdomainmappingsfrompeople’Sfamiliarexperienceontocomplexpoliticalissues，whichCanhelpenhancethe 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文intelligibilityofinauguralspeechesandachievetheeffectofpersuasion．Throughthosemappingstructures，itisfoundthatAmericatendedtoseekhegemonismaftertheendofWorldWarIIandatthesalnetimepursuedglobalcooperationtodealwithworld-wideproblems．ItisalsorevealedthatthefrequencyofmetaphoremploymentinAPIAsiscloselyassociated、加ththesocialcontext．ThedistributivetrendsofmetaphorusagetosomeextentreflectthestabilityandvarietyofAmericanpoliticaldevelopmentduringthisperiod．ThisstudycontributestomakingpeoplemoreawareofAmerica’SpoliticalideologysincetheendofWorldWarII．Itfurtherprovestheimportanceofmetaphorinpolitics．Besides，theanalysisfromadiachronicperspectivefillsthegapinAPIAstudiesandprovidesanimportantmethodforcomprehensivelyencodingmetaphorinpoliticaldiscourses．Keywords：CriticalMetaphorAnalysis；AmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses；diachronicanalysis；persuasion；ideology 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文摘要从最初被视为一种单纯的修辞手法到现在被重新定义为一种认知现象，隐喻研究已有两千多年的历史。上世纪八十年代莱考夫和约翰逊的著作《我们赖以生存的隐喻》的出版昭示了概念隐喻理论的诞生。自此，该理论被广泛应用于探究政治语篇中的意识形态，因为它指出，隐喻作为一种认识世界的方式，能够有效地揭示人们的思想和观点。然而，Charteris．Black认为这种认知方法只关注如何基于个人经验来理解隐喻，而忽略了特定社会背景对隐喻选择的影响。他综合了概念隐喻理论和批评语篇分析的理论成果，提出了批评隐喻分析法。其创新之处在于从一个更广阔的视角研究隐喻，即结合个人和社会因素来解释如何通过隐喻的选择来取得劝说效果。本研究选取了二战以来(1949．2013)的美国总统就职演讲作为研究对象，在批评隐喻分析框架下从共时和历时的角度来探究隐喻在语篇中的应用。研究分三步进行：首先识别出语料中的隐喻并根据它们的始源域将其分类；然后概括出深层的概念隐喻并对其映射机制进行深入分析；最后通过观察隐喻的历时分布，结合社会历史背景来解释隐喻使用的变化。研究结果表明语料中的隐喻主要有八类，分别属于战争、旅程、人类、建筑、家庭、光／火、天气以及舞台等八个始源域。从这些隐喻类型中，作者总结出了十一个概念隐喻。它们都是将人们熟悉的经验映射到复杂的政治问题上，以此来增强演讲的可理解性并达到劝说效果。通过这些映射结构，我们发现二战后美国企图称霸世界，同时在解决世界性问题上又有与其他国家合作的意向。研究还发现，美国总统演讲中隐喻使用频率的变化主要受到社会环境的影响。隐喻的分布趋势在一定程度上反映出二战后美国政治发展的延续性和变化性。本研究能够帮助人们更好地理解美国二战以来的政治意识形态，进一步证明隐喻在政治中的重要性。另外，从历时角度分析隐喻弥补了美国总统就职演讲研究的空白，并为全面解析政治语篇中的隐喻提供了一种重要方法。关键词：批评隐喻分析；美国总统就职演讲；历时分析；劝说；意识形态 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ListofFiguresFigure：2．1Adiscoursemodelformetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．19Figure3．1Keywordof“build”isbeingmeasuredbyAntConc3．2．1w．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．29Figure4．1MetaphorcategoriesandpercentageinAPIAs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．32Figure4．2Cross-domainmappingofPOLITICSISWAR⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯34Figure4．3Cross—domainmappingofNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEY．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．：；6Figure4．4Cross-domainmappingofWORLDDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEY．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．37Figure4．5Cross—domainmappingofNATIONISHUMAN⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯38Figure4．6Cross-domainmappingofNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISBUILDING．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．z42Figure4．7Cross—domainmappingofWORLDDEVELOPMENTISBUILDING⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯44Figure4．8Cross-domainmappingofANATIONISAFAMILY⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯一45Figure4．9Cross-domainmappingofTHEWORLDISAFAMILY⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．47Figure4．10Cross-domainmappingofPOLITICALPROSPECTISLIGHT／FIRE．⋯．．⋯．．．．⋯．．．．⋯⋯⋯．．⋯．．．⋯．⋯．．．⋯．⋯．⋯⋯．．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯．．⋯⋯．．．z19Figure4．11Cross-domainmappingofPOLITICALSITUATIONISWEATHER⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯!；0Figure4．12Cross-domainmappingofTHEWORLDISASTAGE⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．51Figure4．13Generaldistributionofmetaphors⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯52Figure4．14Diachronicdistributionofwarmetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．53Figure4．15Diachronicdistributionofjourneymetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．57Figure4．16Diachronicdistributionofhumanmetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．59Figure4．17Diachronicdistributionofbuildingmetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯60Figure4．18Diachronicdistributionoffamilymetaphor．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯62 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ListofTablesTable4．1MetaphorCategoriesinAPIAs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．31Table4．2SummaryofConceptualMetaphorsinAPIAs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯64V 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ChapterOneIntroductionThepresentstudyistoanalyzethemetaphorscontainedinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddressesfrom1949to2013withthemodelofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis．Astheopeningchapter,thispartpresentsanintroductiontotheresearchbackground，theresearchrationaleandsignificanceofthepresentstudy．Besides，theorganizationofthewholethesisiSillustratedintheend．1．1ResearchBackgroundTheearlieststudyonmetaphordatesbacktoAristotle’Stimesinwhichmetaphorwasregardedasapurerhetoricaldevice．Thistraditionalviewofmetaphorhasinfluencedlaterresearchesformorethantwothousandyears．Inthe1930s，Richards(1936)arguedthattheessenceofmetaphorliesinaninteractionbetweenthemetaphoricalexpressionandprecognitivecontextinwhichitisused．Ithasbeenagreedthathisviewlaidfoundationforthebasicprincipleofcognitiveapproachtometaphor．In1980，LakoffandJohnsonpublishedtheirmasterpieceMetaphorsWeLiveBywhichbroughtcognitivestudiesofmetaphorintoanewera．Theyheldthatmetaphorispervasiveinourdallylife；OurconceptualsystemismetaphoricalinnatureandwecangetaccesstotheconceptualmetaphorsthatstructureOurwayofthinkingthroughthelanguageweuse．TheSO—calledConceptualMetaphorTheorywasmodifiedbyLakoffinthe1990s，specifyingthatmetaphorisacross-domainmappinginOurconceptualsystem(Lakoff,1993)．Sincethen，animportantpositionofmetaphorresearchhasbeenestablishedincognitivefieldandthetheoryhasbeenappliedtoanalyzevariousdiscourses，especiallypoliticalones．Asresearchcontinued，somescholarsfoundthatmetaphorisalwaysutilizedtoarousepeople’Semotionandachievethegoalofpersuasion．ThemostrepresentativefigurewasCharteris-Black(2004)．Hementionedthatcognitiveapproachneglectsthepragmaticaspectofmetaphorandexplainsmetaphormotivationonlywimreferencetoanunderlying 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文experientialbasis．Hefurtherclaimedtheconsciousgoalofpersuasionneedsnecessarilybeintegratedwithinabroaderviewofmetaphor．Thus，heproposedCriticalMetaphorAnalysiswhichincorporateSthemethodsofConceptualMetaphorTheory,CriticalDiscourseAnalysis，pragmaticsandcorpuslinguistics．Thisapproachnotonlypresentshowtoidentifymetaphorandhowtointerpretthemappingmechanismoftheunderlyingconceptualmetaphor,butalsoexplainswhyparticularmetaphorsarechosenconsideringindividual，socialandhistoricalfactors．ItCanbeseenthatCriticalMetaphorAnalysisimpliesamultidisciplinary缸-endofmetaphorstudies．Politicsisanareainwhichmultitudesofmetaphorsareemployed．AsearlyasinAristotle’Stimes，metaphorwashighlyfavoredbypoliticiansintheirpublicspeeches．Metaphorisregardedasaprominentlanguagestrategyinpoliticaldiscourses．ItsimportanceCanbe．bestexpressedbyThompson’Sclassicdescriptionthat“politicswithoutmetaphorsislikeafishwithoutwater．”(1996，P．185)SinceConceptualMetaphorTheoryWasproposed，researchershaveconductedalargeaggregationofmetaphorstudiesinpoliticallanguage(Lakoff,1991，2002；ChiltonandIlyin，1993；Koller,2004)andtheyfoundthatmetaphoractsasapowerfulweaponforpoliticianstopromotetheirpoliticalideology．What’Smore，fortheaudiences，metaphordeeplyinfluencestheirperceptionsofpoliticswhethertheynoticeitornot．However,thereisaprobleminthosestudiesthattheyignorethepragmaticroleofmetaphorandfailtotakethewidesocialcircumstancesintoconsideration．CarverandPikalopointedoutthat‘‘socialandpoliticalcontextsplaymajorrolesinhowmetaphorsofpoliticalsciencearedefined，howtheyfunctionandwhattheirmeaningsare．”(2008，P．3)Inthissense，Charteris—Black’SCriticalMetaphorAnalysisisanidealframeworktoexploremetaphorapplicationinpoliticaldiscourses，foritemphasizestoexplainmetaphorschoicesbybothindividualandsocialfactors．Inaddition，CarverandPikalo(2008，P．3)furtherclaimed‘'thecontingencyofhistoricalcontextsmustbetakenintoaccountinordertosituatemetaphorswithinpoliticalandsocialrelationsofpower,’’whichindicatesthefeasibilityofadiachronicanalysisofmetaphorapplication．ConsideringthegapofthiskindofanalysisinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses(APIAs)，theauthordecidestoconductaresearchofmetaphorsinAPIAsdeliveredinacontinuous2 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文periodfrombothasynchronicanddiachronicperspectives．1．2RationaleofthePresentStudyPresidentialinauguraladdressisaspeechgivenataspecialceremonyintendedtointroduceanewpresident．InAmerica，itisdeliveredbythenewlyelectedPresidenteveryfouryearsasthecommencementofhisterm．Asatypicalpoliticaldiscourse，APIAsharesthecommonfeaturesofpoliticallanguage，andatthesametimebringsinitselfspecialvalues．Differentfromotherpoliticalspeeches，thepurposeofAPIAisnottowinvotesbutliesinestablishingthehighestexecutivepositionofthenewpresident，recoveringthecitizen’SstrongfaithinAmericantraditionalvalues，andpersuadingthemtosupportthegovemment’Spolicies(Xiao，2009，P．9)．Inthissense，APIAscanberegardedasacentralizeddemonstrationofAmericanideology．ThecompositionofeachAPIAistheintellectualachievementsofpoliticaltalentswhoareexpertinlanguageartsandworkonitwithcarefuldeliberation．Especially,metaphoricalexpressionsarealwaysutilizedasaneffectivelanguagestrategytoconveytheirpoliticalideologyandattainthegoalofpersuasion．Givenitsimportanceandspecificity,AmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresshasbeenahotresearchspotincognitivemetaphorstudies．However,thosestudiesallfocusondecodingmetaphorsintheaddressesasawhole，nooneeverresearchesthemetaphorsfromadiachronicperspective．ConsideringAPIAsaredeliveredinaregularfrequencyinAmericanpoliticalhistory,itisassumedthatbyobservingthediachronicdistributionsofmetaphorsinAPIAsduringacontinuoustimespan，wecanbetterunderstandwhycertainmetaphorsarepreferredwithintheparticularsocialcontext．Inthisstudy,APIAsduringthestretchingtimefrom1949to2013arechosenastheresearchtarget．Thatis，theauthoraimstostudythemetaphorsinAPIAsdeliveredaftertheendofWorldWarII．ThereasonforchoosingthistimespanisthattheendofWorldWarIImeansagreatdividinglineinthehistoryofAmericaaswellasthewholeworld．SincetheSecondWorldWar,theworldsituationhasenteredintoaperiodfullofgreatandrapidchanges．AndAmericaplaysamoresignificantroleontheworldstage．Confrontedwithchallengesboth 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文athomeandabroad，Americangovernmentadjustsitspoliciescorrespondingly．TheauthorhypothesizesthatitwillbeamoreeffectiveandcomprehensivewaytodisclosetheunderlyingAmericanideologythroughanalyzingmetaphorsinAPIAswithreferencetosocial—historicalfactors．Therefore，thisstudyistoapplythemodelofCriticalMetaphorAnalysistoresearchmetaphorsinAPIAsfrombothsynchronicanddiachronicperspectives，withthepurposeofrevealingAmericanpoliticalideologyandexploringhowmetaphorsarechosentoachievepersuasion．1．3PurposeandSignificanceThepresentstudyisdesignedtoexplorethemetaphoricalpaaemsandwhyparticularmetaphorsarechoseninAPIAsfrombothsynchronicanddiachronicperspectives，thereby,tounveiltheunderlyingpoliticalideologyoftheUnitedStates．ThesignificanceofthisstudyCanbepresentedinthefollowingaspects：First，thisstudydecodesthemetaphorsinAPIAspartlyfromadiachronicperspective，whichCanfillthegapinAPIAstudiesandenrichmetaphorresearchesinpoliticaldiscourses．PreviousstudiesofAPIAsfocusonanoveralldescriptionofmetaphorsthatareusedinthecorpus，whilethepresentoneaddstoexplainthediachronicchangesofmetaphorutilizationalongthesocialandhistoricaldevelopment．Tosomeextent，thismethodcontributestodevelopingthemodelofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis．Besides，itprovidesnewinsightsabouthowtouncovertheideologyinpoliticaldiscoursesthroughmetaphoranalysis．Second．thestudyCanhelpreadersorlistenerstodeal、析thpoliticaldiscoursesrationally．Politiciansarealwaysexpertinutilizingmetaphorsskillfullytoattainthegoalofpersuasion，buttheaudiencetendtobeinfluencedbythoseskillsunconsciously．Thisstudytellsthatbyinterpretingtheunderlyingconceptualmetaphorsandprobingintothereasonsformetaphorchoicesinsocialandhistoricalcontext，wecanunderstandtheessenceofpoliticsmorerationallyandcritically．Atlast，thisstudyhaveimplicationsforEnglishpedagogy．Metaphorisapowerfullanguagestrategythatshouldbegivenweightinlanguageteaching．Englishteachers4 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文shouldnotintroducemetaphortostudentsonlyasafigureofspeech，butalsotakeitasawayofthinkingandteachthestudentshowtodecodemetaphorsindiscoursesaswellashowtoutilizemetaphorstoorganizetheirownthoughts．Besides，APIAscontainwidespreadinformationthatcoverallaspectsofAmericansociety．Thediachronicanalysiswillinvolvesomehistoricalbackground，socialsituationandculturalvaluesbehindthelanguage，whichcanhelpEnglishlearnersbetterunderstandAmericanhistoryandimprovetheirinter-culturalability．1．4OrganizationoftheThesisThisthesisisorganizedintofivechapters．ChapterOnepresentsageneralintroductiontotheresearchbackground，researchrationaleandsignificanceofthepresentstudy．Besides，organizationofthisthesisisdescribedattheendofthischapter．ChapterTworeviewsimportantmetaphortheoriesandthepreviousmetaphorresearchesinpoliticaldiscourses．Inthefirstplace，thisparttracesthedevelopmentofmetaphortheoryfromtraditionalrhetoricalviewtocontemporarycognitiveapproachanditsnewdevelopmentproposedbyrecentresearchers．Amongthem，ConceptualMetaphorTheoryandCriticalMetaphorAnalysisareelaboratedinacomprehensiveway,fortheytwoaretobetakenasthetheoreticalfoundationsofthepresentstudy．Inaddition，theauthorreviewspreviousstudiesonmetaphorinpoliticaldiscourseswiththepurposeofexaminingwhathavebeenachievedandwhatneedtobefurtherimprovedinpoliticalmetaphorstudies．ChapterThreeisabouttheresearchmethodology．Inthispart，threeresearchquestionsofthestudyareproposed．Then，objecttextsincluding17APIAsareintroducedindetmls．Atlast，theauthorelaboratesuponthemethodsandprocedureofthepresentstudy．TheresearchproceduremainlyfollowsthethreestagesofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis，thatis，metaphoridentification，metaphorinterpretationandmetaphorexplanation．Intheprocess，bothqualitativeandquantitativemethodsareemployed．ChapterFourisconcernedwiththeanalysisofcollecteddata，whichplaysthemost 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文importantroleinthestudy．Thischapterisdividedintothreeparts．Thefirstpartpresentsmetaphorcategoriesthatareclassifiedfromtheidentifiedmetaphors；next，asynchromcanalysisoftheconceptualmetaphorsisconducted；finally,theauthorexplainwhycertainmetaphorsarechosenfromadiachromcperspective．Thelastchapterprovidestheconclusionofthisstudy．Majorfindingsaresummarizedbasedontheanalysisinthepreviouschapters．Then，limitationsofthisstudyarepointedout，andatthesametimesuggestionsforfuturestudyareprovided．6 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewThischapterprovidesanoverviewofimportanttheoriesinthedevelopmentofmetaphorstudy,fromthetraditionalrhetoricalviewtocontemporarycognitiveapproachanditsnewlydevelopedmodel．Besides，previousstudiesaboutmetaphorinpoliticaldiscoursesaresummarizedandresearchgapisfoundout，clarifyingtherationalityofthepresentstudy．2．1TraditionalViewofMetaphorTraditionally,metaphorwasregardedasafigureofspeechemployedinliteraryworks．ItsmainfunctionWastoenhancestylisticelegance．Thisrhetoricalviewofmetaphorrunahistoryofmorethantwothousandyears．AuthoritativetheoriesduringthelongstretchingperiodincludeAristotle’SComparisonTheoryandQuitillian’SSubstitutionTheory．Inthe1930s，thepurerhetoricalopinionWaschallengedbyRichard’SInteractionTheory,whichwasregardedasatransferenceofmetaphorstudyfromthetraditionalviewtomodemcognitiveapproach．2．1．1ComparisonTheoryMetaphorstudyoriginatedfromthefieldofrhetoric，andAristotleWasrecognizedasthefirstscholartodiscusstheissueofmetaphorinasystematicway．RelevantideasweremainlyexpressedinhisPoeticsandRhetoric．InPoetics,Aristotleprovidedacleardefinitionofmetaphoras“givingthetllinganamethatbelongstosomethingelse．”(Aristotle，1952，P．1457)Inhisview,metaphorischaracterizedasasignofabsolutelinguisticmasterybasedontheprincipleofsimilarity．ThisCanbeexplainedbytheacademicbackgroundinhistimes．InancientGreece，theearliestresearchobjectofrhetoricWaspublicspeechdiscoursesinwhichmetaphorWasutilizedtopolishthespeechandsharpenarguments．Aristotleproposedthatmetaphorshouldnotbetoolittle-used，otherwise，itwouldbedi伍culttounderstand；alsonottoo7 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文obvious，otherwise，losestheeffect(Shu，2013)．Inthissense，metaphorcanbeinventedanditisseenasaskillofgenius．Besides，Aristotleexplainedtherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandsimile．InRhetoric,hestatedthatthere’Slittledifferencebetweenthem，andsimileisalsoakindofmetaphor．Simplyspeaking，afundamentalassumptioninAristotle’Srhetoricsystemisthatthereexistbasicexpressionsandmetaphoricalexpressionsinlanguage．Theformerarebasicandnecessary,andthelatterareornamentalandsubordinate(Shu，1996)．Thisassumptiondeterminesthelimitationsofthistheorythatmetaphorisregardedusefulonlyforstylistic，rhetoricalanddidacticpurposes，anditscognitivecontentisignored．ButsomescholarsarguedthatAristotlehassensedthatmetaphorCanprovideanewperspectiveandapproachforpeopleto血iIll【oftheworld．and“itinvolvesacognitiveprocessofdecodingonthepartoftheaudience．”(Kirby,1997，P．547)Anyway,nooneCanignoretheimportanceofAristotle’Scontributionwhenreferringtotheissueofmetaphor．2．1．2SubstitutionTheoryInadditiontoAristotle’Swork，anotherfamousresearchonmetaphorinrhetoricfieldisknownasSubstitutionTheoryputforwardbyancientRomanrhetoricQuitillian．Accordingtothisview,metaphorisameresubstituteforaliteralexpressionanditisdifferentfromthenormalformofwords(Ricoeur,1981，P．83)．Forexample，lioninthesentenceHeisalioncanbereplacedwithcourageousmanwithoutchangingthesentencemeaning；．thatis，HeisalionCansubstitutetheliteralexpressionHeisacourageousman．ComparedwithAristotle’Stheory,Quitillianheldthesimilarpointthatmetaphorisjustalinguisticphenomenon--arhetoricaldeviceonthelinguisticlevel，usedforartisticpurposesandbasedonaresemblancebetweentwoentities(Kovecses，2010，P．IX)．TheyaredifferentinthatSubstitutionTheoryfocusesonthewayhowmetaphorisstructuredandComparisonTheoryemphasizestheessenceofmetaphorstructure(Shu，2013)．Fromthosetwoimportanttheoriesinrhetoric，itCanbeseenthatmetaphorstudyistraditionallyconfinedtothesphereoflanguageitself,neglectingthecontextandcognitiveelements．AsLan(2005，P．111)concluded，traditionalviewofmetaphorCanbebriefly8 山东大学硕士学位论文characterizedbytwobasicconcepts：(1)Metaphorisallabnormalphenomenoninlanguage；(2)Asapurefigureofspeech，metaphorisnotindispensable；itisutilizedonlyforartisticandrhetoricalpurpose．Indespiteofthoselimitations，nomodemresearchcancarryonwithoutreferringtotherhetoricAristotle’Sworks．Thosetheoriesformanmetaphortheories，especiallyintegralsystemthemselves，whichrevealthelinguisticfeaturesofmetaphorandprovidesolidfoundationforthelatertheoryconstruction．Ofcourse，theirlimitationsleavewideresearchspaceforthesubsequentmetaphorstudies．2．1．3InteractionTheoryAmongthetraditionalstudiesofmetaphor,thereisnolackofoppositevoice．I．A．Richards(1936)，aBritishrhetorician，startedtotakeafreshlookatthedefinition，mechanismandfunctionsofmetaphorinhisworkPhilosophyofRhetoric．Hestudiedmetaphoronasentencelevelandcreatedthetermsof“tenor’’and“vehicle”，withtheformerreferringtotheunderlyingzkqideathat20150924isillustratedorilluminatedbythelatter．Richardsclaimedthatmetaphormeansthesymbiosisresultingfromtheconjunctionof“tenor'’and“vehicle．”Forexample，inthesentenceHe括alion，Heistenorandlionisvehicle，andthelatterisusedtodescribetheformer．Byinferringtheirsimilarities，peoplethethatHeisathatgetmeaningcourageousman．Besides，Richards(1936)noticedcontextisanecessaryelementthatshouldbeconsideredintheprocessofinteraction．Richards’workwasthendevelopedbyBlack(1962)inhisseminalstudyModelsandMetaphors：StudiesinLanguageandPhilosophy．Differently,Blackcitedthetermsof“principlesubject’’and“secondarysubject’’toreplace“tenor’’and‘‘vehicle’’respectivelyandemphasizedthatthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwodomainsCanbecreatedthroughtheirinteraction．Herejectedtheviewthatmetaphorsarelinguisticornamentsandclaimedthattheyare“cognitiveinstruments．”(1962，P．37)Inhislaterworks(seealsoMoreAboutMetaphor，1993)，BlackaddedimprovementstotheoriginalformulationsandmadeInteractionTheorymoresystematic．TheInteractionTheorybyRichardsandBlackleftsignificantimpactonmetaphor9万方数据 山东大学硕士学位论文study．Shu(1997)concludedthatthereareatleastthreeaspectsthatcanexhibitRichards’greatcontributionstothedevelopmentofmetaphorresearch：(1)itplantsnewinsightsintothenatureofmetaphoLthatis，metaphorisderivedfromourthoughtandbehavior；(2)ittheofmetaphorinteractionandtakethecontextintoconsideration；(3)emphasizesprocessitplacesmetaphorstudyonasentencelevel．Sincethen，thenatureofmetaphorbegantofromanornamentaldevicetothemanifestationofthought，becausetheinteractionchangebetweenthoughtsfromthetwodomainsleadstoanewunderstanding．Forthisreason，laterresearchersconsistentlyregardedthistheoryasacrucialpointintracingthedevelopmentofmetaphorfromthetraditionalrhetoricviewtoacognitiveone．2．2ConceptualMetaphorTheoryAftertheInteractionTheory,metaphorbegantobeconcernedasacognitivephenomenon，butitwasnotuntilLakoffandJohnson’SclassicworkMetaphorsWeLive缈waspublishedthatthestatusofmetaphorstudywasreallyestablishedincognitivefield．zkq20150924AccordingtoLakoffandJohnson(1980)，metaphorisfarmorethanarhetoricdevice，butalsoawayofthinking．Ourconceptualsystemis“fundamentallymetaphoricalinnature’’(1980，P．1)andthesuperficialmetaphoricalexpressionsaremotivatedbytheundedyingconceptualmetaphor．Byanalyzingamountsofeverylanguage，theycommentedthatmetaphorexistspervasivelyandworksinasystematicwaybasedonourphysicalandculturalviewofmetaphor,latertermedasConceptualMetaphorTheory,experience．Thisbroughtmetaphorstudyintoaprosperousperiod．Itwasthendevelopedinaseriesofotherresearchachievements(Lakoff1987，1993；Lakoff&Turner,1989)．InordertounderstandConceptualMetaphorTheoryinadeepway,itisnecessarytoclarifythemainpointsfromthefollowingaspects．2．2．1WorkingMechanismofConceptualMetaphorIn1993，LakoffpublishedTheContemporaryTheoryofMetaphor，inwhichhemodifiedhisformerworkswi廿lJohnsonandredefinedmetaphorasamappingprocessacrosstwodomainsintheconceptualsystem．Helabeledthemappingbyusingmnemonics万方数据 山东大学硕士学位论文alongthelinesof“TARGETDOMAINISSOURCEDOMAIN．”(1993，P．206)Thesourcedomainisusuallyconcreteandeasytounderstandwhilethetargetdomaininvolvessomethingabstractandunfamiliar．AccordingtoLakoff(1993)，theconceptualmappingisasetofontologicalcorrespondencesfromthetargetdomaintothesourcedomain．What’Smore，theprocessisunidirectional．Forinstance，wecanfindexpressionsineverydayEnglishlanguagelike：(1)Ourrelationshiphashitdead-endstreet,"(2)Lookhow弦wP忱come,"(3)It'sbeenalong,bumpyroad；(4)Weareatacrossroads．(Lakoff，1993，P．206)Inthesesentences，wordsorphrasesof“dead-endstreet，⋯‘howfar,⋯‘along，bumpyroad’’and‘‘crossroads’’belongtothedomainofJOURNEY,butheretheyareemployedtodescribetheconceptofLOVE．Inotherwords，thereisallunderlyingkeymetaphorinOUrconceptualsystemthatLOVEISAJOURNEY,fromwhichthesurfacemetaphoricalexpressionsaregenerated．WeunderstandthisabstractphenomenonaboutLOVEintermsofourconcreteexperiencebycreatingasetofcross-domaincorrespondences：Theloversaretravelersonajoumey；theircommonlifegoalsarethedestinations，andtheirrelationshipzkq20150924isavehicle；loveisnoteasy,becausetherearedifficultiesthattestthemwhethertokeeptravelingtogetherandtherearecrossroadsthatmakethemdecidewhichdirectiontomovetowards．SuchcorrespondencespermitUStobetterunderstandLOVEthroughtheknowledgeweusetoreasonaboutjoumeys．Themappingprocessisirreversible，thatis，wescarcelyuseLOVEtodescribeJOURNEY．InLakoff'sexplanationofConceptualMetaphorTheory,thetermmetaphormeansthecross-domainmappingthatexistsinOUrconceptualsystemwhilemetaphoricalexpressionreferstothesurfacerealizationofsuchamapping(Lakoff1993，P．203)．Richards(2003)furtherclarifiedthattherearetwolevelsofmetaphorfromthecognitiveview：Conceptualmetaphorthatissuper-ordinateanddeepinOUrunderlyingconceptualsystemandlingu&ticmetaphorwhichismotivatedbytheformerandemployedinOureverydaywriaenorspokenlanguage．Thissuggeststhat‘'thelocusofmetaphorisnotinlanguageatall，butinthewayweconceptualizeonementaldomainintermsofanother．’’(Lakoff,1993，P．203)Theunderlyingmappingisprimarywhilethelanguageissecondary,andtheformeristheprincipleconcemofconceptualmetaphortheorists．11万方数据 山东大学硕士学位论文2．2．2CharacteristicsofConceptualMetaphorFromtheperspectiveofcognition，therearethreecharacteristicsofmetaphor,namely,andpervasiveness，conceptualitysystematicity．Pervasive：metaphorexistsineverydaylifeInclassicaltheoriesoflanguage，metaphorisregardedasamemberofrhetoricdevicesthatareemployedonlyinnovelorpoeticworks．Incontrast，ConceptualMetaphorTheorywasproposedonthebasisofthefactthatmetaphorexistspervasivelyinourdaily1ife．MichaelReddy(1993)onceanalyzedmorethanahundredtypesofexpressionsinEnglishlanguageandconcludedatleast70percentoftheexpressionsarestructuredroughlybythecomplex‘‘conduitmetaphor,’’whichprovedthatordinaryeverydayEnglishislargelymetaphorical．Gibbs(1994)researchedAmericanprosewritingsfrom1675to1975andfoundthoseprosewritingsarefilledwithalargenumberofmetaphors．Moreover,McNeil(1992)foundmetaphorexistseveninhuman’Sbodylanguage．Forexample，whenzkq20150924statingIseeanotherproofinit,weusuallypointatsomethinginfrontofus，simulatingtheprocessofseeingaparticularobject，whichsuggestsametaphorUNDERSTANDINGISSEE烈G．ThischaracteristicofpervasivenessCanbeexplainedbyConceptualMetaphorTheorythatpeopletendtounderstandtheabstractornewlyemergedphenomenathroughthemoreconcreteconcepts．Thereasonwhywecannotrealize“thisisalsoametaphor'’isthatithasbeenconventionalized．Inotherwords，whatwasoriginallymetaphoricalbecomesSOcommoninpeople’Severydaylanguagethatitisfinallyregardedasaliteralexpression．AsLakoffandTurnerclaimed，somemetaphorsbecomeconventionalized“totheextentthatitisautomatic，effortless，andgenerallyestablishedasamodeofthoughtamongmembersofalinguisticcommunity．”(1989，P．55)MajorstudiesaboutcognitivemetaphoralebasedontheomnipresenceofmetaphorinOurdailyliferatherthanconfinedtopoeticornovelworks．Conceptuality：MetaphorisawayofthinkingAfundamentaltenetofConceptualMetaphorTheoryisthatmetaphorisawayof万方数据 山东大学硕士学位论文thinking．LakoffandJohnson(1980，P．5)pointedoutthateverydayexpressionssuchasHeattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument,"Yourclaimsareindefensible,"1'reneverwonanargumentwithhimstemfromourthoughtthatARGUMENTISWAR．WeunderstandtheofARGUMENTconceptthroughtheschematicframeworkofourfamiliarknowledgeaboutWAR，andthenwetalkandactbasedonthewaywethinkofarguments．Inaword，metaphorisessentiallyacognitiveprocess．AsLakoffandJohnsonstated“[t]heessenceofmetaphorisunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother．”(Lakoff&Johnson，1980，P．5)ItisbecauseOurconceptismetaphoricallystructuredthatconsequentlythelanguageweuseismetaphorical．Inreturn，throughmetaphoricalexpressions，wecanexplorewhatpeoplethink．Therefore，Lakoff(2002)commentedthatthiscognitiveapproachtometaphorCanbevaluableinidentifyingtheideologythatunderliesOurbeliefsystem．Systematic：metaphorworksinasystematicwaySinceOurmetaphoricalconceptsoperatesystematically,themetaphoricallinguisticexpressionsmotivatedbythoseconceptsarepresentedinasystematicway,whichcanbezkq20150924understoodinthreeaspects．Firstofall，eachconceptualmetaphorisaseriesofsystematiccorrespondencesacrosstwodomains．Asillustratedin2．2．1，conceptualmetaphorLOVEISJOURNEYinvolvesasetofontologicalcorrespondencesbetweenLOVEandJOURNEY--loversaretravelers；goalsaredestination；difficultiesarebarriersinajourney,etc．Inadditiontothesystematicityoftheinternalstructureofoneconceptualmetaphor,differentconceptualmetaphorsarealsorelatedtoeachotherinasystematicway．LakoffandJohnson(1980，P．78)adoptedthreeconceptualmetaphorsofTIMEtoillustratehowdifferentconceptualmetaphorsoperatesystematically．Theyare(a)TIMEISMONEY；(b)TIMEISLIMITEDRESOURCES；and(c)TIMEISVALUABLECOMMODITY．Inthesethreeconceptualmetaphors，OureverydayconceptsaboutMONEY,LIMITEDRESOURCESandVALUABLECOMMODITYareusedtohelpUSunderstandtheabstractconceptofTIME．SinceinOurculture，moneyisonekindofthelimitedresourcesandlimitedresourcesarevaluablecommodities，thesethreeconceptualmetaphorsformasystembasedonsub-categorization．Thatis，conceptualmetaphor(a)entailsconceptualmetaphor(b)，andthelatterentailsconceptualmetaphor(c)．Tosomeextent，theentailment万方数据 山东大学硕士学位论文reflectsthesystematicityofourthoughts．relationshipbetweenconceptualmetaphorsWhat’smore，thesystematicityofcognitivemetaphorsisnotabsolute．Herecomesanotheraspectofthisfeature--highlightingandhiding．LakoffandJohnson(1980)thatcross．domainmappingispartialratherthantotal．Inpractice，weproposedcomprehendonlysomeaspectsofConceptAintermsofConceptBandhideotheraspects．TakeTIMEISMONEYasanexample．TimeCanbespentorwastedlikemoney,butthereisnotimebank；Icanpromisetogiveyousometime，butyouCannevergivemebackthesametimelikepecuniaryexchange．AsLakoffandJohnson(1980，P．53)putforward，“Metaphoricalstructuringispartial，nottotal．Ifitweretotal，oneconceptwouldactuallybetheother．”Inpractice，weonlycomprehendsomecertainaspectsofTIMEintermsofMONEY．2．2．3ExperientialBasisFromthecognitivepointofview,ourunderstandingofabstractconceptsisbasedonoureverydayexperiencewithzkqobjects，people，events20150924andactions．Lakoff(1993)arederivedfromoureverydaybodilyinteractionproclaimedthatconceptualmetaphorswiththephysicalenvironment．AsillustratedinLakoff’Sresearch(1993)，thereareexpressionsinordinaryEnglishlanguagesuchasPricerose；Hisincomewentdown；Unemploymentisup．TheyaremotivatedbyofMONEYISUPandLESSISDOWN．SimilarexamplesconceptualmetaphorsCanalsobefoundinotherlanguages．LakoffexplainedthatMONEYISUPmetaphorstemsfrom‘'people’Scommonexperienceofpouringmorefluidintoacontainerandseeingthelevelgouporaddingmorethingstoapileandseeingthepilegethighen”(1993，P．240)Thus，inOUrconceptualsystem，MOREisrelatedtosuchexperiencesaboutUPwhileLESScorrespondstoDOWN．InConceptualMetaphorTheory,thesourceandtargetdomainsare“linkedtogetheronlyviaanexperientialbasisandthatitisonlybymeansoftheseexperientialbasesthatthemetaphorCanservethepurposeofunderstanding．”(Lakoff&Johnson，1980，P．20)Gradyfurtherperceivesthat，inthemappingstructureTARGETDOMAINISSOURCEDOMAIN，万方数据 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文the‘‘IS’’shouldbe‘‘viewedasashorthandforsomesetofexperienceonwhichthemetaphorisbasedandintermsofwhichweunderstandit．”(1999，P．84)Inaword，ourbasicexperiencesdeterminethewayhowwethinkabouttheworldandthenbecomemanifestedinourlanguage．Tosumup，ConceptualMetaphorTheorypenetratestheessenceofmetaphorintothemostcomplicatedhumancognitivesystemandprovidesamorecompleteframeworktoresearchmetaphorapplication．ItsimpactCanbeevaluatedasrevolutionary．AsLin(1997)andWang(2006)stated，Lakoff’Sresearchhasundoubtedlyguidedmetaphorstudyintoaneweraandinitiatedaresearchboomincognitivefield．Meanwhile，nosingletheoryisperfect．Asresearchcontinued，manyscholarsfoundtheshortcomingsofthiscognitiveapproachtometaphor(Jackendoff&Aaron，1991；Zhang，1999；Liu，2001；Charteris—Black，2004；Li，2005；Shu，2013)．Forexample，JackendoffandAaron(1991)arguedthatmanylinguisticexpressionsofeverylanguageinLakoff’SresearchCannotbedefinedasmetaphor．Similarly,Zhang(1999)pointedoutitisdifficulttodefinethesystemofconventionalmetaphor．Besides，Shu(2013)mentionedthatinConceptualMetaphorTheory,toomuchattentionhasbeenpaidtothecognitiveaspectofmetaphor,whileitssocialanddiscoursefunctionsareignored．Charteris—Black(2004，P．11)claimedoneofthelimitationsofConceptualMetaphorTheoryisthatitexplainsmetaphormotivationonlybasedontheunderlyingexperientialbasisandtakesmetaphoruseasatotallyunconsciousreflex．Actually,metaphorsarealsointentionallychosentoachievepersuasion．Thisconsciousgoalofpersuasion，asCharteris-Blackemphasized，shouldnecessarilyberesearchedbyreferringtothepragmaticaimsandsocialcontext．2．3CriticalMetaphorAnalysisConsideringthelimitationsofConceptualMetaphorTheory,Charteris-Black(2004)arguedthatmetaphorshouldnotbedefinedbyasinglecriterion，butshouldbeexplainedbyintegratingitssemantic，pragmatiCandcognitivedimensionsintoaccount(Charteris．Black，2004，P．2)．Hefurtherfoundthatmetaphorisanimportantinstrumenttoconveyevaluationsandpromotepersuasionindiscourses；therefore，metaphoranalysis 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文shouldbeacentralcomponentofCriticalDiscourseAnalysis．Afterdescribingarangeofcorpus-basedstudies，Charteris-Blackproducedadiscoursemodelformetaphorresearch--CriticalMetaphorAnalysis，mainlycombiningthetheoreticalresultsofConceptualMetaphorTheoryandCriticalDiscourseAnalysis．2．3．1DefinitionsofMetaphorinCMAAccordingtoCharteris-Black，metaphoris“arelativeratherthananabsoluteconcept．”(Charteris—Black，2004，P．11)Itisrelativebecausewordmeaningmaychangeovertime(whatWasoriginallymetaphoricalmaybecomeconventionalized)andmetaphorawarenessnotonlycomesfromthelanguageproducerbutalsodependsonlanguagereceivers(whatisintendedasametaphormaynotbeinterpretedasone)．Inordertoclarifywhethertheuseofaparticularexpressionismetaphoric，Charteris-Blacksuggesteditisnecessarytodefinemetaphorbyintegrating“alinguistic，apragmaticandacognitiveorientation．”(Charteris-Black，2004，P．20)Thetermmetaphorshouldrefertoabundleofcharacteristicscombiningcriteriaofthethreeaspectsinvaryingdegrees．Fromlinguisticcriteria，metaphorreferstowordsorphrasesthatcausesemantictensionthroughreification，personificationanddepersonification．Reificationmeanstouseawordorphraseaboutconcretethingstoexplainsomethingabstract；personificationistouseawordorphraseaboutsomethinganimatetorefertosomethinginanimate；whiledepersonificationistodescribetheinanimatebyusingwordsorphrasesabouttheanimate．A1lshouldbediscussedincertaincontexts．Pragmaticcriteriaofmetaphortaketheunderlyingintentionsoflanguageusersintoconsiderationandemphasizehowmetaphoricallanguageisusedtoarousepeople’Semotionandprovideevaluationseffectively．AsCharteris-Blackputforward，“Ametaphorisanincongruouslinguisticrepresentationthathastheunderlyingpurposeofinfluencingopinionsandjudgementsbypersuasion．”(2004，P．21)Thatistosay,inordertounderstandwhetheranexpressionisametaphor,itisnecessarytoconsiderthespeaker’Sinclinationswithincertaincontexts．Tosomeextent，metaphorisamatterofspeaker’Schoice． 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Aboutthecognitivecriteria，ametaphoris“causedby(andmaycause)ashiftintheconceptualsystem．”(Charteris—Black，2004，P。21)Theconceptualshiftisproducedfrom‘'therelevanceof,orpsychologicalassociationbetween，theattributesofthereferentinitsoriginalsourcecontextandthoseofthereferentinitsnoveltargetcontext”，andtheassociationorrelevanceis‘‘usuallybasedonsomepreviouslyunperceivedsimilaritybetweenthereferentsinthosecontexts．”(Charteris—Black，2004，P．21)Namely,metaphoristouseconceptinasourcedomaintodescribethatinthetargetdomain，whichisthemainideaofConceptualMetaphorTheory．InCharteris-Black’Sopinion，ametaphorshouldsatisfyanyorallofthecriteriathatarespecifiedabove．Inotherwords，metaphorhasatleastthreerolesinlanguage--alinguisticroleofproducingnewmeanings，acognitiveroleofunderstandingbasedonanMogyandapragmaticroleofachievingpersuasion．2．3．2MetaphorandCriticalDiscourseAnalysisWhatmakesCMAdifferentisnotonlyamorecomprehensiveconsiderationindefiningmetaphor,butalsoliesindiscussingmetaphorapplicationwithinthewideframeworkofCriticalDiscourseAnalysis(CDA)，whichhasbeenasystematicandpowerfulmethodinanalyzingvariousdiscourses．CriticalDiscourseAnalysisemergedfromcriticallinguisticsinthelate1970swhenagroupoflinguisticscholarstriedtorevealwhatWashiddeninspokenorwrittentextsbasedonHalliday’SSystematicFunctionalLinguistics(1985)．Theybelievedlanguageisa‘‘socialpractice’’whichCanreflectideologyandpower；thespeakers’choiceofwordsisnotarbitrarybutinasystematicwayinfluencedbysocialandhistoricalbackground，andthemeaningsoftextsareachievedbyinteractionsbetweenthelanguageproducersandreceivers．AsFowler(1991，P．89)stated，thiskindofanalysis‘'usingappropriatelinguistictools，andreferringtorelevanthistoricalandsocialcontext，Canbringideology,normallyhiddenthroughhabitualizationofdiscourse，tothesurfaceforinspection'’．Thus，thegoalofCDAistoemphasizehowlanguagefunctionstoproduce，maintain，andchangethesocialrelationsofpowerandincreasepeople’Sconsciousnessofhowlanguagesareused 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文bythosewhoseekdominationoverothers(Fairclough，1989，P．1)．Inordertoattainthesegoals，CDAtakesabroadinterdisciplinaryapproachthatcombineslinguisticmethodswiththosefromotherdisciplines，suchassociologyandhistory．Brieflyspeaking，whatCDAdoesistoplacetextswithinasocial—historycontext，focusonthewordchoicesthataremadeinstructuringtexts，explainthefactorsthatconstrainordeterminethesechoicesanddiscusstheireffect．Notably,metaphor,asanimportantlanguagestrategy,isoneofthoseconsciouslinguisticchoicesthataremadetopromotetheunderlyingsocialpractice．Fairclough(1992)oncesuggestedthatdiscourseanalysiscanbeorganizedunderfourheadings．Theyarevocabulary,grammar,cohesion，andtextstructure．Andmetaphoristobeanalyzedaspartofthevocabularywhichisabouthowindividualwordshavespecificideologicalsignificance．VanDijk(1993)madeasimilardistinctionbetweenanalysisofcontext(includingbackgroundseRing，participantpositions，theirroles，etc．)andanalysisofthetextitself,suchasitstopics，style，andrhetoricwheremetaphorisincluded．Therefore，Charteris—Black(2004)claimedmetaphoranalysisshouldbeanessentialcomponentofCriticalDiscourseAnalysis．HesuggesteditispossibletounderstandbeRertheconceptuallevelofmetaphorbycriticallyanalyzinghowcertainmetaphorsachievepersuasionwithinsocialcontext，especiallyinacorpus．BasedonthetheoreticalandmethodologicalprinciplesofCDAandConceptualMetaphorTheory,Charteris-Blackproposedacriticalapproachtometaphor．2．3．3CriticalModelforMetaphorResearchAccordingtoCharteris—Black(2004，2005)，theuseofmetaphorispersuasionoriented．Thatisbecausemetaphorpotentiallyhasapersuasiveforcetoinfluencepeople’Smoralandemotionalresponse．Anditplays“acrucialsocialroleincommunicatingideologythatisvitaltothediscourseofpolitics．”(Charteris—Black，2005，P．51)Thus，abetterunderstandingofhowmetaphorCanbepersuasiveisofgreatimportancetoexplorethespeaker’Srealintentionsandhelptheaudiencetounderstandpoliticallanguagecritically．Charteris-Black(2004)suggestedthepersuasivefunctionofmetaphorinthe 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文politicaldiscourseshouldbeexplainedbyreferringtonotonlyindividualexperiencesbutalsosocialresources．Giventhat，heproposedacompletemodelofmetaphoranalysis，assummarizedinFigure2．1．CoGNITIVE&AFFECllVEPRAG～IA=nCLINGUISTIC(experientialmeaning)(contextualmeaning)(1inguisticmeaning)lFigure2．J『Adiscoursemodelformetaphor(Chartefis-Black，2004，P．248)Charteris-Black(2005)statedmetaphorarisesfromOurexpectationsaboutmeaningthatarebasedonourknowledgeabouthowwordshavepreviouslybeenused．Theexpectationsofwordmeaningvarybetweenindividualsaccordingtotheirdifferentexperiencesoflanguage．Thus，inCharteris-Black’Smodelformetaphor,individualconsiderationsareimportantresourcetoexplainmetaphorchoices．Itissub—dividedintothreecomponents：cognitivefactors(includingourthoughts，feelingsandbodilyexperiencesofthephysicalworld)，pragmaticconsideration(ourunderstandingofwhatwillbeeffectiveinparticularcontexts)andlinguisticknowledge(ourknowledgeofthelinguisticsystem)．Inadditiontotheindividualfactors，thepersuasiveeffectofmetaphorinpoliticaldiscoursesshouldbeexplained、析mreferencetosocialresources．for‘'thesocialinfluenceofideology,cultureandhistorymayprovideamoreconvincingaccountofwhyparticularmetaphorsarechoseninspecificdiscoursecontexts．”(Charteris—Black，2004，P．243)Thesocialbasesformetaphorchoicearehistoricalandculturalknowledgeaswellas 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ideologicalmotivationthatarecombinedtomakethemetaphorpersuasive．Underthisdiscoursemodelofmetaphor,Charteris-BlackprovidedaspecificprocedureofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis，whichwillbedemonstratedinthefollowingsection．2．3．4StagesofCriticalMetaphorAnalysisCameronandLow(1999，P．88)onceconcludedcognitivemetaphoranalysisisusuallyconductedinthreestages：collectingmetaphorexamplesinthetext，generalizingtheunderlyingconceptualmetaphorsandusingtheresultstosuggesthowmetaphorinfluencespeople’Sbeliefsandactions．Charteris-Black(2004)foundthesestagesareverysimilartooneofthedominantapproachesofCDA，thatis，Fairclough’S(1995)threestagesofidentification，interpretationandexplanationinanalyzingdiscourses．Basedonthosepreviousresearchmethods，Charteris-Blackelaboratedupontheprocedureofmetaphoranalysisintothreestages---metaphoridentification，metaphorinterpretationandmetaphorexplanation．Thefirststageismetaphoridentification．InCriticalMetaphorAnalysis，therearetwostepstoidentifymetaphors：1)aclosereadingoftextsampleswimthepurposeofidentifyingcandidatemetaphorswiththecriteriaforthedefinitionofmetaphorspecifiedin2．3．1．Wordsthatsatisfyanyorallthecriterionarethenclassifiedasmetaphorkeywordswhilethosewithnometaphoricalsensewereexcludedfromfurtheranalysis；2)afurtherqualitativesteptoexaminewhethereachuseofakeywordismetaphoricorliteralbyreferringtotheverbaldiscoursecontexts．Inthisstep，thoseconventionalmetaphorsshouldbeparticularlynoticedbecause‘‘thesearelikelytocontainmorecovertypesofevaluation．”(Charteris-Black，2004，P．36)ThesecondstageinCMAismetaphorinterpretation．Itinvolvestoestablisharelationshipbetweenmetaphoricalexpressionsandtheunderlyingpragmaticandcognitivefactorsthatmotivatethem．ConceptualMetaphorTheoryisappliedtoidentifytheconceptualmetaphorsthatmotivatethesurfacemetaphoricalexpressions．AsCharteris·Black(2005)claimed，politicalmythsCanberevealedbyidentifyingconceptualmetaphorsthataccountforsystematicpreferencebyapoliticianforparticularmetaphors．20 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Thediscussionofpossibleideologicalintentionsthroughconceptualmetaphoranalysisisawayofexploringpersuasivelanguageuse．Thethirdstageismetaphorexplanation．Whenanalyzingpoliticaldiscoursewithcriticalmetaphoranalysis，thecognitiveapproachneedstobecomplementedwiththesocialcontextinwhichthediscourseweremade．Thus，thestageofmetaphorexplanation‘‘involvesidentifyingthesocialagencythatisinvolvedintheirproductionandtheirsocialroleinpersuasion．”(Charteris-Black，2004，P．39)Inaword，characteristicsofmetaphorcannotbetreatedinisolationfrompersuasivefeaturesinthewidecontext，throughwhichwecanfurtherexaminetheideologicalmotivationofmetaphorchoices．Inconclusion，CriticalMetaphorAnalysisisanapproachtodecodetheconceptualbasisofmetaphorandatthesametime，revealthecovertintentionsoflanguageusers．Byexamininghowtoachievepersuasionanddisclosingthedeepideologiesthroughmetaphoranalysis，CMAprovesitselfasanimportantandusefulmeansofannouncingthecomplicatedrelationsbetweenlanguage，thoughtandsocialcontext．SinceitWasproposed，CriticalMetaphorAnalysishasbeenappliedasaneffectivewaytoexplainmetaphorchoicesincertaindiscourses(Ji&Chen，2007；Huang&Wu，2009)．Inthisthesis，theauthorattemptstoadopttheframeworkofCMAtoresearchmetaphorsinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddressesdeliveredaftertheendofWorldWarII．2．4MetaphorinPoliticalDiscoursesMetaphorhasbeenwidelyemployedinpoliticaldiscourses．Thisshouldbeattributedtoitsparticularfunctions．Inthissection，theimportanceofmetaphorinpoliticallanguagewillbeexplained．Besides，thepreviousstudiesaretobereviewedinordertoexaminewhathavebeenachievedinthisareaandwhatresearchgapneedtobefilled．2．4．1MetaphorandPoliticalLanguagePolfficaldiscoursereferstoanykindofdiscoursesconcernedwithpoliticalaffairs，whichCanbeinformofwrittentextsororalspeeches．Theyareproducedbasedonsocialandpoliticalfacts，andatthesametime，underinfluenceofdominantideologyandruling 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文policies．Forpoliticians，politicaldiscoursesworkasanimportantvehicletotransmittheirleadershipphilosophy,toshapepeople’Sattitudesandvalue，andretainsupportfromcitizens．Toachievepoliticalpurposes，muchattentionshouldbepaidtolanguageexpressions．Thus，thelanguageofpoliticsisacomplexissue．Manystrategiesareusedtoguidetheaudiencestowardsadesiredattitudesorthought，andmetaphor,isoneofthemostpreferredinstruments．AsWilson(1990，P．104)pointedout，“Metaphorsandmetaphoricallanguagehaveacentralroletoplayinpoliticalcommunication．’’WhymetaphorisSOimportantforpolitics?ThemostobviousreasonisthatmetaphorCanbeusedtoexplainsomethingthatisdifficulttounderstand．Itistruethataveragecitizensdonotknowenoughaboutthecomplexitiesofmostpoliticalevents．Underthiscircumstances，Miller(1979)statedmetaphorsareusefulinmakingtheobscurityofpoliticalthingsmanifestandmakethemunderstandabletothegeneralpublic．Thompson(1996，P．186)alsoclaimed“untilandunlessthatmetaphoricalleapofunderstandingismade，thereisnoparticipationinpoliticsnorpoliticaldiscourse．’’Besides，forpoliticians，themostsignificantaspectofmetaphorliesinitsuseforpersuasion．“Metaphorisaneffectivemeansforpoliticianstodeveloppersuasiveargumentsbyapplyingwhatisfamiliar,andalreadyexperienced，tonewtopicstodemonstratethattheyarethinkingrationallyaboutpoliticalissues．”(Charteris-Black，2005，P．35)Withoutmetaphor,theywouldfindithardtotransmittheirideologies．Theyhopethat‘'theirmetaphorspersuadethepublictofollowtheprescriptionsuggestedbythemetaphors．”(Mio，1996，P．131)Atthispoint，metaphorCanberegardedasamediumtooffersolutionstopoliticalproblemsorevents．Comparedtothosediscoursesinwrittenforms，thepersuasivefunctionofmetaphorisparticularlyemphasizedinoralpoliticalspeeches．Forthepartofpoliticalmessagereceivers，however,theeffectsofmetaphorscontainedinpoliticaldiscoursesarealwaysimposedonthemunconsciously．Thismeansthat‘‘politicalaudiencesingeneraldotendtosubmittopowerfulmetaphorsandaftersometimewillregardthosemetaphorsasconstitutivepartsoftheirconceptualframework．’’(Ungerer&Schmid，2001，P．150)ResultsofBosman’S(1987)researchindicatedthattheparticipants’ideasandattitudesweresystematicallyinfluencedbythemetaphorical 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文description．Wilson(1990)oncecollectedlotsofmetaphorexamplessuchasusing“illness’’todescribeacountry．Hecommentedthatthemetaphorindicates“asimplecomparisonbetweenrealityandtheimageofillness，butovertimesomeindividualswillcometoaccepttheimageinacognitiveandliteralsense．”(1990，P．129)Itcanbeimpliedthatmetaphorispowerfulintransmittingtheinvisibleideologiesandvaluesinpoliticalworld．Brieflyspeaking，metaphorsCaninformandstructurethinkingondiscourses．Therelationsofpowerwithinpoliticaldiscoursesaretypicallycondensedandexpressedinauthorizedmetaphors，andtheyareimportanttohelpunderstandthepoliticalprocessitself．Therefore，metaphorsinpoliticaldiscoursesarousedgreatresearchinterestofpoliticalscientists，linguistsandevenscholarsinotheracademicfields．Intherealmoflinguistics，cognitiveapproachtometaphorhasbeenwidelyappliedtoresearchpoliticallanguagesincethe1990s．Theauthorwilllistthemainresearchachievementsofstudiesonpoliticalmetaphorsinthefollowingpart．2．4．2PreviousStudiesofMetaphorinPoliticalDiscoursesSinceConceptualMetaphorTheoryoweditsbirthtoLakoff’Sworkinthe1980s，metaphorstudyhasstriddenintoaprosperouseraandresearchershavepaidmuchattentiontothecognitiveroleofmetaphorsinpoliticaldiscourses．Lakoff(1991，2002)firstappliedhistheoryintoanalyzingpoliticallanguage．InhisdiscussionabouthowAmericangovernmentappliedthemetaphorsystemtojustifythefirstGulfWar(1991)，hepointedoutthatmetaphorCanstructurehowwethilll(．especiallyinunderstandingtheenormouslycomplexsituations，andmetaphoricalthoughtsareinescapableinOurpoliticallife．Inhisanotherwork，Lakoff(2002)madeacomparisonaboutmetaphorsthatwereusedbyConservativesandLiberals．Heconcludedthatthedifferencebetweenthetwopartiesisadivisionbetweentwowaysofunderstandingtheworld，anditisultimatelyafamily‘baseddivisionbetweenstrictnessandnurturance．In2008，hefurtherexplainshowOurmindworkswimmetaphorinsocialandpoliticallifeinhisThePoliticalMind．"ACognitiveScient&t'sGuidetoYourBrainandItsPolitics． 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ExceptforLakoff’Sworks，thefieldofresearchcontinuestotakeitsinspirationfromotherresearchers’achievements，suchasHowe(1988)，ChiltonandIlyin(1993)，CameronandLow(1999)，Chilton(1996，2004)，JansenandSabo(1994)，Koller(2004)，Musolff(2004，2006)，SeminoandMasci(1996)．Forinstance，bystudyingtheuseofmetaphorsinAmericanpoliticaldiscoursefrom1980to1985，Howe(1988)foundpoliticsislargelyconceptualizedaseitheranexerciseofpowerfromthedomainofWarorarule-boundcontestfromthedomainofsports．ThesemetaphorsdeeplystemfromAmericancultureanddrawonexperiencethatismorecommonlysharedbyAmericanmalesthanbyAmericanfemales．Thus，Howefurtherfoundsuchmetaphorshavethepowerofexcludingwomenfromparticipatinginthedominantpoliticalactivities．InastudyaboutpublicutterancesofpoliticalleadersinRussia，GermanyandFrance，ChiltonandIlyin(1993)studiedhowthe‘‘CommonEuropeanHouse’’metaphorundergoesaseriesoftransformationsbetweendifferentpoliticalcultures．Theyarguedthatmetaphorsplayanimportantconceptualroleincommunicationacrossnationalboundaries；theyarenottransferredwithfixedmeanings，butareprocessedinaccordancewithlocallanguages，politicalinterestsanddiscourseformations．Otherscholarsalsowidenedrelatedresearchesindifferentways．Allthoseearlierstudieshavecontributedtoaburgeoningdevelopmentofresearchintovariousaspectsofmetaphorinpoliticaldiscoursesandformedaplatformforthemorerecentworks．However,therearelimitationsofConceptualMetaphorTheory,asdiscussedintheprevioussection．Someresearchersdevelopeditwithnewperspectivesandnewmethods．Charteris—Black’SCriticalMetaphorAnalysisisatypicalone．Thismodelexaminesmetaphoruseinabroaderviewandemphasizesthefactorsformetaphorchoices．WiththeframeworkofCMA，Charteris-Black(2004，2005)himselfresearchedtheuseofmetaphorsbydifferentpoliticiansorpoliticalparties．Forexample，throughanalyzingmetaphorsemployedbytheNewLabourPartyofBritaininbothmanifestosandpoliticalspeeches，hefoundmetaphorsthatmotivatedbyaconceptualmetaphorPOLITICSISRELIGIONconstituteanew“ethical”politicaldiscourse．Besides，hecomparedmetaphorusebetweenAmericanpresidentialspeechesandBritishPartyPoliticalManifestos．HefoundthepoliticaldiscoursesofAmericaplacemoreemphasisonPHYSICALENVIRONMENTmetaphors 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文whereastheBritishpoliticalonesshowmorepreferencetoPLANTmetaphors，whichindicatethatmetaphorsareembeddedinpeople’Sexperienceincertainsocialandphysicalenvironment．In2006，heexploredhowmetaphorscontributetotheformationoflegitimacyinfight—wingpoliticalcommunicationonimmigrationpolicyintheBritishelectioncampaign．Inhisotherworksof2008and2009，Charteris．Blackfurtherstudiedhowmetaphorsareusedinmodelsofpoliticalleadership，whichagainprovetheimportantroleofmetaphorinpoliticalcommunications．Withtheprosperousdevelopmentofmetaphorstudiesinpoliticallanguageabroad，lotsofdomesticscholarsofChinahavealsojoinedtheresearchlinesandmadegreatachievements．Zhu(2007)investigatedvariousmetaphorsinChineseandGermanlanguagesanddemonstratedtheclosecognitiverelationsbetweenmetaphorandpolitics．ChenandLiu(2009)observedthatpoliticalmetaphorworksimportantlyinAmericanpoliticallanguageowingtotheirdefining，persuadingandinformation·processingfunctions．TheyalsofoundsportsandWarmetaphorsareoftenutilizedfortheirpersuasivepowers；andpoliticiansalwaysresorttofamily,leadershipandneighborhoodmetaphorswhendealing谢ththehomeandforeignpoliticalaffairs．He(2011)explmnedthatmetaphorconstructionandmetaphorapplicationareheavilyconditionedbypoliticalpowerandpoliticalaim．Inanotherresearchin2011，WuandPangconductedacriticalanalysisofradioaddressesdeliveredbyPresidentBush．Theyfoundthatmetaphorplaysasignificantroleinevokingtheaudience’Semotionandjustifyingthespeaker’Spersonalintention．LiangandWang(2013)comparedmetaphorapplicationinBush’SandObama’SpoliticaldiscoursesabouteducationpoliciesandfoundtherearedifferentpoliticalvaluesbetweenthetwoAmericanparties，whichtoagreatextentsupportsLakoff’Searlierresearchin2002．Wang(2014)researchedthemetaphorsandmetaphoricalframesinpoliticaldiscoursesgivenbyRepublicansandDemocrats．Hefoundthatitisthosemetaphorsandframesthatdeterminethepublic’Sacceptanceoftheirpolicies．Theflourishingstudiesbothabroadandathomeincreasinglyimpelpoliticalmetaphorresearchintoadeeperdevelopment．Theycontributedtorevealingtheimportantroleofmetaphorinpoliticallanguageandhowtheconceptualmodelofmetaphorinfluencespeople’Sunderstandingofpolitics．However，thosepreviousstudiesmainlyfocusonan 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文overallanalysisofmetaphorsintertwinedincertaindiscourses，whilefewofthemeverconcernmetaphorapplicationacrossacontinuoustimeperiodandexploremetaphorchangesinthecourseofpoliticalandsocialdevelopment．HuangandWu(2009)firstnoticedthisresearchgapandtookatentativediachronicstudyofmetaphorsintheeditorialson‘'twosessions’’fromPeople≥Daily．TheyfoundthatthestabilityandshiftinmetaphorusecoincidewiththesocialandpoliticalchangesinChinafrom1978to2007．ThisinspirestheauthorinthisthesistoresearchmetaphorapplicationinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddressesfrombothsynchronicanddiachronicperspectives，consideringAPIAsaredeliveredasafixedpracticeinAmericanhistoryandcanbestmirrorsocialdevelopmentinacontinuousperiod．Besides，Charteris-Black’Smodelofmetaphoranalysis(2004)emphasizestoexplainwhycertainmetaphorispreferredbytakingintoaccountthewidercircumstancesthroughwhichtheyareproduced．Thismodelalsoaimstodiscoverhowmetaphorhelpspoliticianstoattainpersuasionandrevealtheirideologies．Thus，noothertheoreticalframeworkCanbebetterthanCriticalMetaphorAnalysisthatistobeappliedforthepresentresearch．26 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ChapterThreeMethodologyThischapterconcernsaboutthemethodologicaldesignofhowtoapplyCriticalMetaphorAnalysistoresearchmetaphorsinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddressesfrom1949to2013．Theresearchquestions，targetcorpus，researchmethodsanddetailedprocedureareintroducedrespectivelyinthischapter．3．1ResearchQuestionsSincetheendofWorldWarII，Americahasexperiencedmuchvariationwiththerapidchangesoftheintemationalanddomesticsituations．Atthesametime，eachpresidentandhisadministrationadheretothebasicprinciplesofAmericanfoundingdocuments，whichassurethecontinuityofitsgoverningphilosophy．AllthosecailbereflectedineachAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses．Sincecognitivemetaphorworksasanindispensableresourcetoinstillvaluesandachievepersuasioninpoliticaldiscourse，itispossibly．aneffectivewaytouncoverthepoliticalideologyofAmericangovernmentthroughinterpretingtheconceptualmetaphorscontainedinAPIAs．Besides，theauthorassumesthatbytracingthediachronicchangesofmetaphorutilizationalongthesixdecades(1949-2013)，wecanbetterexplainwhycertainmetaphorsarepreferredtoothersandfurthermoreexplorethevarietyandstabilityofAmericangoverningphilosophysincetheendofWorldWarII．Undertheseassumptions，thisthesisisdesignedtoresearchthemetaphorsinAPIAsafterWorldWarIIundertheframeworkofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis．Theresearchquestionsthatformedthebasisforthisstudyareasfollows：1．WhattypesofmetaphorsareemployedinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses(1949—2013)?2．WhatkindsofconceptualmetaphorsCanbegeneralizedfromthemetaphoricallinguisticexpressions?Howtointerprettheirideologicalfunctionsintheinauguraladdresses?3．Whatarethediachronicdistributionsofdominantmetaphorsfrom1949to20137 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Howtoexplainthechangesofparticularmetaphorapplicationacrosstheyears?3．2CorpusDescriptionTheobjectofthisresearchisacorpusof17AmericanpresidentialinauguralspeechessincetheendofWorldWarII，whichspansapproximately65years(from1949to2013)，involvingthereignsoftwelveUSpresidents,Theyareavailableonthewebathttp：／／www．bartleby．com／124／index．html，withtotalwordnumberofabout33，671，whichisofsufficientsizetostudymetaphorapplicationinacorpusaccordingtoCharteris-Black’SCriticalMetaphorAnalysis．3．3ResearchMethodsandProcedure111thisthesis．theauthorwilladoptCharteris-Black’SthreestagesofmetaphoranalysistoconducttheresearchforAPIAs．Intheprocess，bothqualitativeandquantitativemethodsareemployedtofinishthefollowingprocedure．Firstly,metaphorkeywordsareidentifiedfollowingthetwostepsofmetaphoridentificationinCMAandthenclassifiedintodifferentcategoriesaccordingtotheirsourcedomains．Thefirststepconcernsabouttheidentificationofmetaphorkeywords．Throughacarefulreadingofallthetargettexts．candidatemetaphorsaredelineatedwimthecriteriaformetaphordefinitionspecifiedinChapterTwo．Thosethatsatisfythecriterionareclassifiedasmetaphorkeywords．Thenthefrequencyofsuchkeywordsaremeasuredquantitatively、析ththehelpofsottwareAntConc3．2．1w．Takecandidateword“build”asanexample．Figure3．1presentshowthedataareexaminedbythesoftware．28 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文FiMGlobalSet咖gsTodPreferemcesAboutco咖。艮hc科删吐∞洙le硼赢嘲赫喇}脚脚}卿蚋隅|¨coUoc毹eS|l瞄适蜥}KeywordL组tii二日一anP埘1aetF静‘iAg⋯～o=h⋯～㈨obu&ld⋯⋯mr坶㈧Ⅲet谢o!；=瞎：二caAPⅢi二：=arYmen#oh．§nahe：#；obu：1athe3⋯1：Y：fo：h一一二=晴一joP批1二⋯f％ne⋯1tJ，⋯owbu：1do丑二Y一⋯w2P～05．．；=噜出j矗P批1：d—nopej．扯Ⅲki，tobt：id洲h{#hajj：Aebe!一11一i=谴⋯ioP⋯1j1．，．Wmt}止je，⋯iabu：id-z瑚：oa：ht‘：i1o!thtJp：：二工●一anP⋯ie一1di0：⋯10ng，aod：obu：1ain=h～P二acebr：d口洲fuofA=em⋯PⅢ嘟be!Ⅲn8J．．．．Le：u5builda蜘c乞u㈨!peace㈨he’A=∞￡i㈨PⅢi91^dlybm嘲the吐一etobuilaJuch5p⋯eiJohenoblescj墨eri⋯p批i01Ye#hj々we=he社oplewiljbEilda丑Ame出a：c≯pc=cuni=y咄二‘二=吧批anP瑚i，but{m1o∞㈣1ty．1=obⅡildb呲eri⋯，．BeyoodL±；=螬一aaP一1．Fell引m⋯j，1e．ujbdilath{=觚⋯oa，aA⋯⋯⋯i；=№⋯aoP—i⋯urhmo：yYes，1㈣3bE：1d⋯br：dqeAb：：dgew：ie—j=噜⋯5nP⋯i01211豇》1edie—ZwLllverktobu：1Sa啪。二e呲瑚：f3；增tⅢ±l二!∞⋯iAP郸i：agA芷e⋯一一一Wewillbuild⋯defe⋯3beyond￡hal二en掣A=谵一anP⋯1ta础a：djLo纰5：no：1j，aMbdildano％rnerjh&p眦my—Wew1：：Ameri㈨P渤i∞a}tm!々#g踟h．Wewillb∞1a#hemdjinab：id口es，chee．；=幢⋯4AP瑚ii13uogoyouoAwhacY蚴Ebuild，=l。：眦y口ude!：reYTo：h￡i=弛￡i㈣P地iⅢ1⋯：引hef龇e．o=bqildthe—djjnd⋯⋯tja：d删；=培⋯5AP⋯1·一～-⋯‘一·⋯一￡}·⋯⋯⋯一‘■M}●．SearchTermi≯wor舡t--ca聃r--RegexCo．cofdenc8HnsSearchwind口w副ze。；耵i}jbuild壹；Ad_M∞d1950型T硝越leo，1}s￡们i；sto。j；沁nrlies一⋯s一一*sort兰兰兰竺兰、蔓i；量jliilill§ll≯。““，F—j广。e”2阿—了rLevel：万—j呈!Figure3．JKeyword“build”isbeingmeasuredbyAntConc3．2．1wInthesecondstep，afurtherqualitativemethodistakentodeterminewhethereachuseofakeywordismetaphoricalorliteralbyexaminingcorpuscontexts．Forexample，theword“build”occurs19timesinthecorpus．Byreferringtotheprecedingandfollowingsentenceswherethewordoccurs，wewillfindnotevery“build’’isutilizedmetaphorically．Wecanfindevidencefromthefollowingsamplesentences．(1)“Yes，letus—bui—ldourbridge．Abridge晰deenoughandstrongenoughforeveryAnlericantocrossovertoablessedlandofnewpromise．’’(JimmyCarter,1997)(2)“Wewill—bui—ldtheroadsandbridges，theelectric酣dsanddigitallinesthatfeedourcommerceandbindustogether．’’(BarackObama,2009)Fromtheabovetwosentences，itisobservedthatthekeyword‘'build’’isusedmetaphoricallyinsentence(1)whilebeingliteralinsentence(2)．Thus，thefirst‘'build”iscalculatedasametaphortokenandthesecondwillbeexcludedfromtheresearchtarget．Onceallthemetaphorkeywordsareidentifiedthroughqualitativeanalysis，theyareclassifiedintodifferentmetaphorcategoriesaccordingtotheirsourcedomain．Forexample，‘‘build’’togetherwithotherkeywordssuchas‘‘structure’’．‘‘basis’’belongtothesourcedomainofbuilding，thentheyaregroupedasbuildingmetaphors．Thetotalnumberoftheiroccurrenceisquantitativelycalculated，accordingtowhichthepercentageofeachcategoryistobepresented．29 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Secondly,basedonthestatisticscollectedinthefirstpart，theunderlyingconceptualmetaphorsaretobeabstractedaccordingtothemetaphorinterpretationstageofCMA．Byinterpretingthemechanismofeachconceptualmetaphor,thatis，thecross—mappingstructurefromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomain，theauthorwillexplorehowAmericanpresidentsconveytheirleadershipphilosophyandachievepersuasionthroughmetaphorusage．Finally,thethirdstageofCMAismetaphorexplanation，whichfocusesonrelevancetothesocialcontext．Inthisthesis，theauthoradoptsadiachronicperspectivetoanalyzethedominantmetaphorcategoriesinthecorpus，withthepurposeofexplainingmetaphorchoiceswithinthewidesocial-historicalcontext．Inthispart，quantitativemethodisemployedtopresentthediachronicdistributionofmetaphorsfrom1949to2013．Thenqualitativemethodisusedagaintodescribethestabilityandvariabilityofmetaphorusethroughouttheyearsandexplainhowtheindividualandsocialfactorscontributetoparticularmetaphorchoices．30 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ChapterFourResultsandDiscussionThischapteristopresentacomprehensiveanalysisofthemetaphorsinAPIASfrombothsynchronicanddiachronicperspectives．Theauthorfirstidentifiesthemainmetaphorcategoriesandpresentstheirpercentagesinthediscourses，andthendecodestheconceptualmetaphorsabstractedfromtheidentifiedmetaphorkeywords．Anotherimportantpartistoanalyzethediachronicdistributionofeachmetaphorcategorytoexplainthefactorsformetaphorchoices。Inaddition，theideologicalandpersuasivefunctionsofmetaphorsarediscussedthroughouttheanalysis．4．1IdentifyingMetaphorCategoriesinAPIAsFollowingthetwostepsofmetaphoridentificationinCriticalMetaphorAnalysis，metaphorkeywordsareidentifiedinthewholecorpusandthefrequencyofkeywordsarecalculated．Thosemetaphorkeywordsbelongtodifferentsourcedomains，andafterfurtherqualitativeanalysis，differentcategoriesofmetaphorsareidentified．ThedetailedpresentationofthedataCanbeseeninTable4。1．Table4．1MetaphorCategoriesinAPIAsMetaphorcategoryMetaphorkeywords(examples)TotaltokensWarchallenge，threat，defense，struggle，fight，253aggression，enemy，against，triumph，victoryJourneyadvancetoward，pass，lead，turn，milestone，185beginning，end，roadblock，travelHumanpartner,friend，bom，grow,strength，dream，179weakness，birthday,responsibility,mistakesBuildingbuild，structure，support，constructive，found，135shake，shape，cement，basis，renewFamilyfamily,father,brother,children，generation，home，126 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文heir,heritageLight／Firelight，dark，shadow,fire，rekindle，dim66Weathertempest，wind，climate，lightning，tide31Stagerole，play,stage，act，strategy18Others35Total1028Table4．1demonstratesthemetaphorcategoriesinAPIAsthathavebeendeliveredsincetheendofWorldWarII．Asthefirstcolumnpresents，therearemainlyeighttypesofmetaphorconcludedfromtheidentifiedmetaphorkeywords．Theyarewar,journey,human，building，family,light／fire，weatherandstagemetaphors(thosewithtokennumberbelow10arenotconsidered)．Thesecondcolumnprovidessomekeywordexamplesofeachcategory．Thethirdoneshowsthefrequencyofmetaphorkeywordsineachcategory．Notably,thenumberhereisnotthetypesofmetaphorkeywordsbutthetotaloccurrenceofthem，forsomewordsareutilizedmetaphoricallymorethanonetimes．Forexample，“build”isakeywordinthebuildingdomain．WiththehelpofAntConc3．2．1w,itOccurs19timesinthecorpus，thenthereare19tokensforthemetaphorkeyword“build”．Inthisway,therearetotally1028tokenscalculatedinthewholecorpus．Figure4．1MetaphorcategoriesandtheirpercentagesinAPIAsFigure4．1isanotherformofthepresentationofmetaphorcategories，whichprovidesamoreclearillustrationofeachcategory’Sproportion．Asthefigureshows，war,joumey,human，familyandbuildingmetaphorsareofthehighestfrequency,accountingfornearly85％ofthetotalmetaphorsinthecorpus．Comparedwiththeotherthreeminormetaphors32 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文(1ight／fire，weatherandstagemetaphors)，thosefivemetaphorcategoriesplayadominantroleinmetaphorapplicationforAPIAs．AfteridentifyingdifferentcategoriesofmetaphorinAPIAs，detailedanalysisofthosemetaphorsareconductedwithexamplesinthefollowingparts．4．2InterpretingConceptualMetaphorsinAPIAsThesecondstageofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis(metaphorinterpretation)isbroadlybasedonConceptualMetaphorTheory．Thatistoabstracttheunderlyingconceptualmetaphorfromthemetaphoricalexpressionsintexts．Byinterpretingthecross—domainmappingmechanismofeachconceptualmetaphor,theauthorwillexplorehowAmericanpresidentsinstilltheirpoliticalideologyinthemindsoftheaudienceandachievepersuasionthroughmetaphoremployment．4．2．1WarMetaphorWarisacommonphenomenoninhumanphysicalworld．Accordingtoourexperience，people’SattitudestowardsWarCanbeeithersupportiveoropposed．PeoplesupportWarwhenthereappearenemieswhothreattheirsafetyandinterests．Theywouldfightagainsttheminordertowinpeaceandsecurity．Ofcourse，therearesacrificesandcostintheprocess．Thiscanberegardedasthepositivesideofwar．Thereisalsoanothersideofwarthatiscruel，unjustandinwhichthereareinvasionorslaughtersthatpeoplehateandoppose．Inpoliticaldiscourses，thepositivesideofwarisalwayshighlightedwhilethenegativeoneishidden，forthegovemmentneedspeople’Ssupporttoaccomplishitspoliticalpurpose．AsCharteris-Blacksuggestedthatthedomainofwaralways“highlightsthepersonalsacrificeandphysicalstrugglethatspeakersclaimarenecessarytoachievesocialgoals．”(Charteris-Black，2004，P．91)InthecorpusofAPIAs，thefrequencyofwarmetaphoristhehighestamongtheeightcategories(upto25％)．Thekeywordsinclude“threat'’，“defense”，“struggle”，“fight'’，“aggression”，“enemy”，“against”，‘'triumph'’，‘'victory”，etc．SuchkindsofmetaphoricalexpressionsaremotivatedbyanunderlyingconceptualmetaphorPOLITICSISWAR．The33 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文cross．．domainmappingmechanismcanbesummarizedinthefollowingfigure．SourcedomainⅥARTargetdomainPOLIT【CSSocialproblemsanddifficulties；PresidentandhisI脚；◇government；Americanpeople；OvercomeproblemsandattainpoliticalinterestsFigure4．2Cross-domainmappingofPOLITICSISWARThePOLITICSISWARmetaphorinthecorpusisasetofontologicalcorrespondencesbymappingknowledgeaboutWARontoknowledgeaboutPOLITICS．EverypresidentisassignedofresponsibilitytoachievethepeacefulprosperityofAmerica，buttheprocessisalwaysfullofchallengesanddifficulties．Intheinauguraladdresses，thepresidentsconceptualizedthosesocialproblemsanddifficultiesasevilenemiesintoapoliticalWarinordertoremindthecitizensofAmerica’Sserioussituationandgainsupportforimplementingtheirpolicies．Forexample：(1)“⋯wewillfightourwarsagainstpoverty,ignorance，andinjustice⋯”(JimmyCarter,1977)(2)“WesufferfromthelongestandoneoftheworstsustainedinflationinOurnationalhistory．”(RonaldReagan，1981)(3)‘'Now,fordecades，weandtheSovietshavelivedunderthethreatofmutualassureddestruction．”(RonaldReagan，I985)Astheexamplesentencesdemonstrate，problemssuchas‘‘poverty'’，‘‘ignorance’’，‘‘injustice’’．‘‘economicinflation'’and‘‘nuclearweapons’’areallchallengesintheprocessofAmerica’Spoliticaldevelopment．TherearelikeevilenemiesthatthreatenthesecurityandviolatetheimmediateinterestsofinnocentAmericans．Therefore，awaragainstthemisajustcausethatdeservesthesupportofallAmericans，whoshouldactlikebravesoldierstofightagainstthemunderthecommanderofthepresidentandhisadministration．34What’Smore，thepresidentsencouragethepublictounitetogethertoachievevictory 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文withfirmfaith．ThiscanbeexaminedinExample(4)and(5)．(4)“Wewillnegotiateforit，sacrificeforit；wewillnotsurrenderforit--noworeveL”(RonaldReagan，1981)(5)“LetUS⋯，confidentthatintheendwewilltriumphtogetherintheright．”(JimmyCarter，1977)Standingonthesideofrightandjustice，thepresidentsexpressedtheirconfidenceinachievingthefinalvictoryandplantedthisfirmfaithinthepublic，whichwouldstirpeople’Smoraletodefeattheirenemies．Inshort，theconceptualmetaphorPOLITICSISWARimplicatesthatpoliticalactivitiesdealingwithsocialevilsanddifficultiesareofthesameimportanceasarighteousmilitaryaction．Theyarefightingforthecommoninterests．Inthisway,theconceptualmodelof‘‘war’’canarousethepublic’Ssensethattheyshouldsupporttheirgovernmentanddevotethemselvestothemission．Thus，theWarmetaphorsaremosteffectivetoarousepeople’Spassiontoremoveanyobstaclesinnationaldevelopment．WheneverpoliticalproblemsOccur,Americanpresidentswouldattempttoraisepeople’Ssenseofjusticetofightagainstevilforcesbystructuringpoliticalissuesintheconceptofwar．4．2．2JourneyMetaphorInoureverydaylife，joumeymeanstravelingfromoneplacetoapredetermineddestination，especiallyoveralongdistance，inwhichtheremayexistobstacles，crossroadsanddifficulties．Lakoff(1980，1989)foundthatpeopleofteninterpretabstractconceptsintermsofjourneyintheirdailylife．HeproposedconceptualmetaphorssuchasLOVEISAJOURNEY,LIFEISAJOURNEYandconcludedthatstructuringconceptsintermsofjourneyimpliesmakingeffortstowardsachievingworthwhilegoals．Inpoliticaldiscourses，joumeymetaphorfrequentlyOCCURS，becausepoliticiansarealwaysconcernedwithgoal。orientedpoliticalactivities．InAPIAs，joumeymetaphorhasthesecondlargestnumberoftokens．Americanpresidentspurposefullystructuretheirpoliticalintentsintotheconceptofjourney,attemptingtoguidetheaudiencestoparticipateactivelyinthenationaldevelopmentunder35 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文theleadershipoftheiradministrations．SometaphorsinthiscategorycanbeabstractedasNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEY，asshowninFigure4．3．SourcedomainJOURNEYTargetdomainNATIONALDEVELOPMENTTravelers；Americanpeople；Leader(guide)；．脚；◇Americangovernment；Guideline；FaithofAmerica；Obstacles；Dimculties；DestinationFreedom，prosperityFigure4．3Cross—domainmappingofNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEYThefigureclearlypresentshowthenationaldevelopmentofAmericaisstructuredasajourneytowardsadestinationofpoliticalgoals．Intheinauguraladdresses，massofmetaphoricalexpressionsaboutjourneycanbefound，suchas：(6)“⋯wewilladvancetowardaworldwhereman’sfreedomissecure．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(7)“Tothatendwewilldevoteourstrength，ourresources，andOUrfirmnessofresolve．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(8)“Inthedaysahead1willproposeremovingtheroadblocksthathaveslowedoureconomy．”(RonaldReagan，1981)(9)‘'Progressmaybeslow--measuredininchesandfe西notmiles--butwewillprogress．”(RonaldReagan，1981)(10)“Ourjourneyhasneverbeenoneofshortcutsorsettlingforless．”(BarackObama,2009)Fromthoseexamples，ametaphoricalscenarioisformulated：Americanpeoplearetravelerswiththeirdestinationsasfreedomandprosperity．Theyareledbythegovernmentandtaketheirfaith(the么砌劬砂God,Americandream，etc)asguidelinetoensurethattheyareadvancingintherightdirection．Thejourneyisnotsmoothbutfullofroadblocksanddifficulties；thepathislongandruggedandtherearenoshortcuts,"butallAmericansshouldnotsettleorrestbutke印advancing,eventhoughtheprogressisslow，measuredininchesandfeet,notmiles．Tothatend,theymustmakegreatefforts，devotestrength， 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文resources，andfirmnessofresolve，becausetheirdestinationishighlyworthwhiletoreach．Itisobviousthatthe“destination'’，“obstacle’’aspectsaremosthighlightedintheconceptualmetaphor．ThepolRicaldestinationisdescribedasbright，hopefulandworthwhile．Butthecourseisuneven．Everyonemustmakeeffortstoreachthatdestination．Inthisway,thepresidentscouldmakepeoplebeRerunderstandthesignificanceoftheirpoliticalidealsandpersuadethemtojoininthesocialdevelopmentcauseanddevotetheireffortsactively．AsCharteris-Blackcommented，‘journeymetaphorspositivelyevaluatepolicies．”(Charteris—Black，2004，P．93)Actually,underlyingthejourneymetaphorsininauguraladdressesaftertheendofWorldWarII，thereexistsanotherconceptualmetaphorWORLDDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEY,inwhichAmericaincorporatesthedevelopmentofthewholeworldintoitspoliticalplans．ThestructureisshowninFigure4．4．SourcedomainTargetdomainJOI瓜NEYWORLDDEVELOPMENTTravelers；Nationsaroundtheworld；America；Leader(guide)；lMMppin／>FaithofAmerica；Guideline；DestinationAmericanpoliticalgoalsFigure4．4Cross—domainmappingofWORLDDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEYInthisconceptualmetaphor,thenationsbecometravelersintheworlddevelopmentjourney．Itisobservedthatthe“leadership”aspectofjoumeyisheavilyhighlightedinthecorpus．Forexample：(11)“⋯destinyhaslaiduponOurcountrytheresponsibilityofthefreeworld’Sleadership．”(DwightDavidEisenhower,1953)(12)“Wewillagainbetheexemplaroffreedomandabeaconofhopeforthosewhodonotnowhavefreedom．”(RonaldReagan，1981)(13)“Startonthisjourneyofprogressandjustice，andAmericawillwalkatyourside．”(GeorgeWalkerBush，2005)DuringtheColdWar,AmericaproclaimeditselfastheleaderofdemocracieswiththepurposeofunitingitscampandfightingagainsttheSovietUnion．Afterthecollapseofthe37 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文latter,AmericabecametheonlysuperpowerandattemptedtoguidetheworlddevelopmentintoadirectionasAmericapredetermined．Tosomeextent，theconceptualmetaphorWORLDDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEYrevealsAmericanideologyofseekingtodominatethewholeworld．Withtheemploymentofjourneymetaphors，thepresidentscanmaximizetheprevalenceoftheirpoliticalgoalsamongtheordinarycitizens，thenachievethepurposeofpersuading．4．2．3HumanmetaphorAccordingtoLakoffandJohnson(1980)，themostfamiliarexperiencesofhumanbeings，suchashumanmotivation，activitiesandemotions，aremorelikelytobeemployedasasourcedomaintoassisttheunderstandingofnonhumanentities．InAPIAs，humanmetaphoraccountsforthethirdlargestproportionofmetaphorapplicationinthecorpus．ThemappingofhumanmetaphorCanbeillustratedasfollows：SourcedomainHUMANTargetdomainN—LTIONBirth／death；Beginning／ending；GrowthDevelopment；DispositionQuality；Behaviors懈t◇Governmentactions；Health／illness；Socialpower／socialproblems；HumanrelationshipNationalrelationshipFigure4．5Cross-domainmappingofNATIONISHUMANInmetaphoricalterms，anationisconceptualizedasaperson．First，thegrowingprocessfrombirthtodeathofapersonismappedontothedevelopingprocessofanationfromitsbeginningtoending．Forexample：(14)“⋯SOthatonits200thbirthdayAmericawillbeasyoungandasvitalaswhenitbegan．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)(15)“TwocenturiesagoOurNation’Sbirthwasamilestoneinthelongquestforfreedom．”(JimmyCarter,1977)38(16)“Weremainayoungnation⋯．thetimehascometosetasidechildishthings．” 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文(BarackObama，2009)AsExample05)describes，theemergenceofanewnationislikethebirthofhumanbabies．Twocenturiesago，Americanwasbomanditsbirthhadgreatsignificancetotheworld．Likeaperson，anation’Sbirthdayiscelebratedeveryyear．In(14)，the200thanniversaryofAmericawillbewelcomedbyAmericanswitllthebestfour-yeardevelopmentasagift．Comparedtoothernations，Americaisyoung，butitshouldnotbehavechildishly,asconveyedin(16)．Throughsuchmetaphoricalexpressions，thepresidentsemphasizedAmerica’Svitalityanditsprivilegedpositionintheworld．Besides，likeaperson，anationnotonlyhasphysicalbody,butalsohasitsownspecialqualitiesandspiritualworld．Forinstance：(17)“America’Srecordinthiscenturyhasbeenunparalleledintheworld’Shistoryforitresponsibility，foritsgenerosity，foritscreativityandforitsprogress．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)(18)“InthisoutwardandphysicalceremonyweattestonceagaintotheinnerandspiritualstrengthofourNation．”(JimmyCarter,1977)(19)“Greatnationslikegreatmenmustkeeptheirword．WhenAmericasayssomething，Americameansit．”(GeorgeBush，1989)Fromtheexamples，itcanbeseenthattheimageofAmericaisofoutstandingqualities---responsible，generous，creative，strongspiritandkeepingitspromise，etc．Inshort，thegoodaspectsofhumandispositionarehighlightedinconceptualizingtheimageofAmerica,whichmakesitscitizenbelievethattheirnationisrighteousandhighlydisciplined．Inthisway,thepresidentscouldinspirethecitizens’patriotismfortheircountryandmaintainagoodimageofAmericangovernment．EspeciallyafterWorldWarII，byemphasizingitsgoodqualities，Americatriedtopromoteitsvaluesamongothernations。Anothermappingisbetweenhumanbehaviorsandgovernmentactions．Forexample：(20)“IdonotbelievethattheGreatSocietyis⋯Itistheexcitementofbecoming--alwaysbecoming,trying,probing,falling,resting,andtryingagah哩⋯”(LyndonBainesJohnson，1965)(21)‘‘Letourrecentmistakesbringaresurgentcommitmenttothebasicprinciplesof39 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ourNation⋯’’(JimmyCarter,1977)In(20)，TheGreatSocietywasasetofdomesticprogramsintheUnitedStateslaunchedbyPresidentJohnsonin1964—65．Inordertopersuadetheaudiencetounderstandhispolicies，heexplainedhowtoimplementmeasurestobuildthe“GreatSociety’’bystructuringthisabstractconceptintoconcretehumanbehaviors．Thereby,hecouldpersuadehiscitizenstosupporthispolicies．HoWever,nobodyisperfect．Similarly,thereisnoperfectgovernment．Sometimes，thepresidentalsorecognizedthegovernment’Sfault，forexample，theWatergateScandal．In(21)，thepresidentstatedthisscandalaffairwasamistakeandconveyedtoaudiencethathewouldnotneglecttheproblem．Inthisway,hissinceritycouldarousepeople’Sunderstandingandmakethemregainconfidenceintheincomingpresidentandhisadministration．Besides，anationlikehumanbeingcanbepowerfulandstrongwhenitisinastateofhealthydevelopment，andsometimesmayfallintoillness，whichneedthegovernmenttotakepropermeasurementstorestoreitsstrength．Seethefollowingexamples：(22)“Weareastrongnation，andwewillmaintainstrength⋯”(JimmyCarter,1977)(23)“TheeconomicillswesufferhavecomeuponUSoverseveraldecades．”(RonaldReagan，1981)AfterWorldWarII，AmericahasbecomeahighlydevelopednationwithnocompetitorsurmountingitoVer．Thus，in(22)，thestrengthofAmericaarerepeatedlyemphasized，whichimplieshowconfidentAmericaisinitsownpowerandhighpositionintheworld．Throughthemetaphoricalexpressions，thepresidentcouldenhancenationalprestigeofAmericaandstrengthenpeople’Ssenseofnationalcohesionandpride．In(23)，economicproblemswereconceptualizedashumanillness，bywhichthepresidentconveyedtohispeopletheseriouseconomicconditionsofAmericaandinspiredthemtoworkhardtorestoreeconomicstrength．Withsuchmetaphoricalmappingsfromhumantoanation，theaudiencewouldacceptthepresident’Sopimonmoreeasilybecausethemetaphormadethemfeelthatnationalissuesweretheirownbusiness．What’Smore，intheconceptualmetaphorNATIONISHUMAN，theaspectof“humanrelationship”ishighlightedonmorethanoneoccasioninthecorpus．Forexample：(24)“⋯／ncompanywith16freenationsofEurope．welaunchedthegreatest 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文cooperativeeconomicprograminhistory．(HarryS．Truman，1949)(25)“Tothosewhoclingtopowerthroughcorruptionanddeceitandthesilencingofdissent，⋯wewillextendahandifyouarewillingtounclenchyourfist．’’(BarackObama，2009)Nationalrelationshipisequalizedashumanrelations，whichcanbecooperativeorhostile．In(24)，AmericangovernmentattemptedtoestablishacooperativerelationshipwithEuropeancountries，purposingtobuildastrongallianceandconstraintheexpansionofcommunismnations．InExample(35)，humanbehaviors--extendahandandunclenchyourfistwereutilizedtoelucidatenationalrelationsbasedonthepoliticalinterestsofeachside．Inaword，whentherelationsofnationsaredescribedintermsofhumanrelationship，Americapeoplearemorelikelytounderstandandacceptthepresident’Sforeignpolicies．4．2．4BuildingMetaphorInourschematicframework，buildingisaconstructiveactivitythatsatisfythebasicmaterialneedsforhumaneverydaylife．Beforetheconstruction，theremustbearchitecturaldesigndrawnbyprofessionaldesigners；aconstructiveprojectneedspeople’ScooperativeworksinceitCallberarelycompletedbyasinglehand；adurablebuildingmusthavesolidfoundationsandmaytakeanextendedperiodoftimetofinish．Theabovedescriptionimpliesthatbuildingisagoal—oriented，effort·needingandtime·consumingactivityinhumanlife．Thus，inpoliticaldiscourses，buildingconceptisalwaysappliedasanimportantsourcedomaintostructureabstractsocialactivities，motivatedbyanunderlyingconceptualmetaphorthatAWORTHWHILEACTIVITYISABUILDING．(Charteris-Black，2004，P．70)InAPIAs，buildingmetaphorCanbefoundineveryinauguraladdresses．Socialgoalsareconceptualizedasalong—termbuildingprocesswhichinvariablyconveyapositiveevaluation．TheunderlyingconceptualmetaphorCanbesummarizedasNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISBUILDING，asillustratedinFigure4．6． 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文SourcedomainBU几DINGTargetdomainNATIONALDEVELOPMENTAmericangovernment；卜pi今Americanpeople；Socialdevelopment；SolvesocialproblemsandmakechangesFigure4．6Cross-domainmappingofNATIONALDEVELOPMENTISBUILDINGAsthefigureshows，theabstracttargetdomainofsocialdevelopmentismappedbytheconcreteconceptofbuilding．Firstofall，Americangovernmentactsasabuildingdesigner，whodepictsthesocialdevelopmentblueprintbasedonitspoliticalgoalsandnationalconditions．Forexample：(26)“⋯whetherweshapethefuture跏theimageofourhopes，isOurStodeterminebyouractionsandourchoices．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1969)(27)“⋯SObuildinganeweraofprogressathomerequiresminingawayfromoldpoliciesthathavefailed．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)Thebuildingofanationisnotstartedrandomlybutmustbeplannedinapredeterminedway．Examples(26)and(27)demonstrateclearlythatnation—buildingshouldbeconductedinaccordancewiththeirhopesandthedevelopmentofthetimes．Whatactionstotakeandwhatchoicestomakedependonthegovernment’Sdeterminationandguidance．Secondly，undertheguidanceofAmericangovernment，Americanpeoplearetherealbuildersinthelong-termconstructiveproject．Examplesare：(28)“AmericaWasbuiltnotbygovemment，butbypeople⋯”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)(29)“⋯OUrnewgovernmentistogiveallAmericansanopportunity．．．tobuildbeRerlives．”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1997)TheabovetwometaphoricalexamplesstressthatAmericaisbuiltbypeople，bytheirhardworkandtheirsenseofresponsibility．Throughemployingthosemetaphors，thepresidentssucceededinarousingpeople’Senthusiasminbuildingtheirownsheltersand42 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文motivatedallAmericanstoparticipateinsocialactivitiesinordertoachievethecommoninterests．Thirdly,anydurablebuildingmusthavesolidfoundationsandreinforcedstructure．Likewise，socialgoalsCanonlybeachievedonthebasisofnationalstrengthandthesupportfromallcitizens．Examplesale：(30)“TheyaleindividualsandfamilieswhosetaxessupporttheGovernment⋯”(RonaldReagan，1981)(31)“Thestateofoureconomycallsforaction，．．．wewillact_-notonlytocreatenewjobs，buttolayanewfoundationforgrowth．”(BarackObama，2009)LayingsolidfoundationsCanguaranteethesuccessfulcompletionofaconstruction．Similarly,socialdevelopmentneedsstrongsupportfromeveryfields．As(30)shows，theorderlyoperationofasocietyneedssupportfromAmericanindividualsandfamilies．Besides，theisomorphicrelationbetweenbuildingandsocialdevelopmentin(31)entailsthattheremustbeastablebasistopreventitfromfalling．Usuallysuccessfuleconomicperformanceistakenasapreconditionofotherpoliticalpolicies．However,theconstructiveprocesscannotbeensuredtoproceedalwayssmoothly．Sometimes，theremaybebarrierswhichhindersocialconstruction．Theonlywayistoteardownthebarriersandcontinuethebuildingproject．Forexample：(32)“⋯toteardowneconomicbarriersandliberatethespirit．”(RonaldReagan，1985)Thebuildingmetaphorwiththeuseof“barriers’’conveysanegativeevaluationbecausebarriersareentitiesthatobstructUSfromachievinggoals．Undersuchcircumstances，thosebarriersaredefinedasstructuresthatrequireremoval．Tosumup，theaspectsconceming‘'buildingshape”，“buildingfoundations’’and“people’Scombinedeffortsinbuildingprocess”arehighlightedinthemetaphoricalmappings．Bycreatingasetofsuchassociationsbetweenbuildingandgoal-orientedsocialactivity，thepresidentscouldcalluponallAmericancffizenstodevotethemselvesincreatingabeRersociety，whichwouldbeadvantageoustotheimplementationoftheirpoliticalpolicies．43 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文AftertheendofWorldWarII，Americangovernmentnolongerlimiteditspoliticalgoalsindomesticissues，butalsoextendeditsambitionstothewholeworld．Thatis，Americainvolvedworldbuildingintoitsownpoliticalconcerns．BuildingmetaphorinthecorpusCanbesummarizedintoanotherconceptualmetaphor：WORLDDEVELOPMENTISBUILDrNG．SourcedomainTargetdomainBUILDn、『GWORLDDEVELOPMENTAmerican；卜p；◇Nationsandtheirpeopleintheworld；Developingprocess；WorldpeaceandfreedomFigure4．7Cross—domainmappingofWORLDDEVELOPMENTISBUILDINGDifferentfromasinglenation’Sconstruction，worldbuildingneedsthecooperativeendeavorofpeoplefromthewholeworld．butstillaccordswithAmerica’Senvisage．Examplesentencesare：(33)“Welookuponthisshakenearth，andwedeclareourfirmandfixedpurpose--thebuildingofapeacewithjusticeinaworldwheremorallawprevails．”(DwightDavidEisenhower,1957)(34)“⋯thereCanbenonoblernormoreambitioustaskforAmericatohelpshapeajustandpeacefulworldthatistrulyhumane．”(JimmyCarter，1977)AsExample(33)shows，peaceisexpectedastheoutcomeofthebuilding，whichneedssocialCO—operationfromamongallthecountriesintheworld．Intheconstructionproject，Americaclaimsitselfasthebuildingleaderordesigner，directinghowtoshapetheworldstructureaccordingtoitsownpoliticalideology(34)．MetaphoricalexpressionlikethisrevealsAmericanpoliticalambitionthatitseekstodominatetheworlddevelopment，maintainsitshegemonicstatusandspreadsitsdemocraticvaluesinthenameofpeaceand 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Fromalltheanalyses，itcanbeconcludedthatmetaphorsfromthesourcedomainofbuildingareemployedtoimplyapositiveevaluation，whichhelpstoarouseapositiveemotionofthepublictosupportthepresidents’policies．4．2．5FamilyMetaphorFamilyisthemostfamiliarconcepti，nhumanlife．Inafamily，theparentshavetheresponsibilitytoprotectandeducatetheirchildren，andchildrenshouldfollowtheparents’guidanceandinherittheirfamilytraditionsthathavebeenhandeddownthroughsuccessivegenerations．Inpoliticaldiscourses，familymetaphorsarewidelyemployedbecausetheyareeffectiveinarousingpeople’Ssenseofsolidarity．Lakoff(1996)researchedthatfamilymetaphorsallowUStoreasonOurnationonthebasisofafamily．Ringmar(2008)furtherobservedthatfamilymetaphorcombinesbiologicalandhierarchicalprinciples．RulersCanbefoundwhen‘‘fathers’’ofthecountriesaredefinedandtheirsubjectsareconceptualizedas‘'children”．Inthepresentcorpus，therearetwoconceptualmetaphorsunderthismetaphorcategory．TheyareANATIONISAFAMILYandTHEWORLDISAFAMILY．Fortheformer，themappingstructureareorganizedasfollows：SourcedomainFAM叮YNAnON．Americangovemment；Americancitizens；卜p；◇Nationaltraditions；Americansindifferentages；TllelandofAmericaFigure4．8Cross—domainmappingOfANATIONISAFAMILYTheelementsfromthedomainoffamilyaremappedontothesocialorganizationofAmerica．ThegovernmentisparentandAmericancitizensarethechildren．Americanhistoryisafamilyhistorysucceededbygenerations．ExamplesCanbeillustratedinthefollowingsentences：45 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文(35)“Wedarenotforgettodaythatwearetheheirsofthatfirstrevolution．”(JohnF．Kennedy，1961)(36)“⋯WashingtonremainstheFatherofourCountry．”(GeorgeBush，1989)(37)“Wemustshowcourageinatimeofblessingbyconfrontingproblemsinsteadofpassingthemontofuturegenerations．”(GeorgeWalkerBush，2001)In(36)，GeorgeWashingtonWascalled“thefatherofhiscountry”，partlybecauseheWasoneofthosewhobroughtthecountryintobeing．HerepresentsthefirstgenerationofAmericaintherevolutionarytimesandthecontemporaryAmericansaretheheirsofthatfirstgeneration，asillustratein(35)．Anotherreasonisthatheisseenastheheadofstate，whichindicatesthatthegovernmentisconceptualizedasamaleauthorityfigureinabigfamily．What’Smore，justasaparenthastheresponsibilitytoprotecthischildrenandstriveforthewelfareoffuturegenerations，SOthegovemmentshouldleaditscitizenstogainabeUerfuture．In(37)，thepresidentemphasizedthatthegovernmentwouldcreategoodlivingconditionsforAmericanposterityandneverleaveproblemstothefollowinggenerations，whichcouldmotivatepeopletogeneratefamilialconsciousnessandthenunitetogethertoworkforthecommonwell-being．Correspondingtofamilyheritage，anationalsopossessesvaluableprinciplesandtraditionsthathavebeenpasseddowninordertomaintainitscontinuity．Morethanonepresidenthavestressedtheimportanceofinheritingtheirnationalprinciplesandtraditions．(38)“⋯letUSrememberthatthoughourheritageisoneofbloodlinesfromeverycomeroftheEarth，weareallAmericanspledgedtocarryonthislast，besthopeofmanonEarth．”(RonaldReagan，1985)(39)“Raisedinunrivaledprosperity，weinheritaneconomythatisstilltheworld’Sstrongest．”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1993)Adistinguishedandprosperousfamilymusthaveitsvaluableinheritanceandthedescendantsshouldcarryitontomaintainthefamily’Suniquenessandcontinuity．TheAmericanhistoryofmorethan200yearshasleftrichlegaciesforitscontemporaryandfuturegenerations，bothspiritualandmaterial．Asanationofimmigrants，Americantraditionsareintegratingculturalelementsfromeverycomeroftheworld(38)．Besides，thepredecessorsleftaricheconomicbasisfortheirheirs．As(39)shows，contemporary 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼皇曼曼皇曼曼曼曼曼皇曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼II曼曼曼曼曼曼笪曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼曼鼍曼曼曼曼鼍曼曼曼曼曼曼曼鼍曼曼曼Americansinheritthestrongesteconomyintheword，enjoyingunrivaledprosperity．Asthefortunatedescendants，theyshouldcarryforwardtheinheritanceratherthanweakenitduetowrongbehaviors．Fromtheanalysis，itcanbeobservedthatfamilymetaphorsplayanimportantroleinmotivatingpeople’Ssensesofbelongingandsolidarity．Therefrom，thepresidentscancondensethewillofallAmericancitizenstogetherandthentakecombinedactiontoachievepoliticalgoals．Thatiswhyfamilymetaphorsoccurineveryinauguraladdress，functioningasanimportantinstrumentforadvocatingtheleadershipphilosophy．FortheconceptualmetaphorofTHEWORLDISAFAMILY，themappingstructureisshowninFigure4．9．Sourcedomain莹K哺ⅡxTargetdomainTHEWORLDThewholeworld；}Mapp；今Nationsorallmankind；-AmericaorAmericanpeople；TheearthFigure4．9Cross—domainmappingofTHEWORLDISAFAMILYMotivatedbytheconceptualmetaphorTHEWORLDISAFAMILY，therearemanymetaphoricalexpressionsaboutbrotherlyaffectioninAPIAs．Forexample：(40)“OnlybyhelpingtheleastfortunateofitsmemberstohelpthemselvesCanthehumanfamilyachievethedecent，satisfyinglifethatistherightofallpeople．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(41)“ToOursisterrepublicssouthofourborder，weofferaspecialpledge⋯”(JohnF．Kennedy，1961)(42)“⋯seeourselvesasridersontheearthtogether，brothersonthatbrightlovelinessintheetemalcold--brotherswhoknownowtheyaretrulybrothers．’’(RichardMilhousNixon，1969)Asisobservedfromtheexamples，the“brotherhood'’aspectismainlyhighlighted．Inthehumanfamily，allmanarebrothersorallthenationsintheworldarebothers／sisters．Theyshouldhonorthedignityofeachoneandkeepanfamilyatmosphereofpeacerather47 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文thanturbulence．Inthebigfamily，Americaistheeldestandstrongestbrother，whoactsasaleadingauthorityinthefamilyandhastheresponsibilityoftakingcareoftheweakerbrothersorsisters．As(40)shows，Americawouldhelptheleastfortunateofitsbrothercountriestohelpthemselvesandin(41)，Americapledgedtoassisthissisterrepublicstoshakeoffpoverty．Actually，whatisimplicitinthemetaphorsisAmerica’Srealintentionofinterferingothers’internalaffairsorestablishingastrongalliancetofightagainsthisadversary．Whenpeople’Sfieldofvisionstartedextendingtothespacein1969，itwasmoreappropriatetodescribethehumanworldasafamilyandtheearthastheircommonhome，asshownin(42)．Inaword，theemploymentoffamilymetaphormotivatedbyTHEWORLDISAFAMILYrevealsthatAmericanhasrealizedtheimportanceofcooperationamongnationsandevenamongallhumanbeingssincetheendofWorldWarII．4．2．6OtherMetaphorCategoriesInadditiontothemainmetaphorsofwar,joumey,human，buildingandfamily,therearethreeminormetaphorcategoriesinthecorpus，togetheraccountingforabout15％．Theyalelight／firemetaphor,weathermetaphorandstagemetaphor．Light／FiremetaphorLightisaconcretesourcedomaininhumanlifethatisalwaysrelatedtoabstractconceptslikehope，belief,etc．Besides，Charteris-Black(2004)perceivedthatlightpermeatespoliticaldiscoursesbecauseitisalwaysrootedinaconceptualmetaphorSEEINGISUNDERSTANDING．OtherscholarshavegeneralizedconceptualmetaphorsaboutfireintheirresearchessuchasLOVEISFIRE(LakoffandTurner,1989)andEMOTIONISHEAT(K6vecses，2010)，fromwhichitCanbeconcludedthatfireisusuallyassociatedwithhumanemotion．Theauthorinthisthesisgroupedlightandfiremetaphorsintothesamecategorybecausetheyareemployedinsimilarwaystoexpresspositivemeanings，whicharegeneralizedintoaconceptualmetaphorofPOLITICALPROSPECTISLIGHT／FIRE．Thecross—domainmappingstructureisdemonstratedinFigure4．10． 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文SourcedomainLIGHT店IItETargetdomainPOLITICALPRoSPECTLight；I懈；◇Brightfutureofsociety；Fire；Hopeofhumansociety；DarknessDi衢cultiesorsocialevilsFigure4．10Cross—domainmappingofPOLITICALPROSPECTISLIGHT／FIREExampleexpressionscanbefoundinthefollowingsamplesentences：(43)“Maythelightoffreedom，comingtoalldarkenedlands，flamebrigh缈-—uIltilatlastthedarknessisnomore．’’(DwightDavidEisenhower,1953)(44)“Theenergy,thefaim，thedevotionwhich⋯willlightourcountryandallwhoserveit⋯．theglowfromthatfireCantrulylighttheworld．”(JohnEKennedy,1961)(45)“WithinUS，thepeopleoftheUnitedStates，thereisevidentaseriousandpurposefulrekindlingofconfidence．”(JimmyCarter,1977)ThewordsLightanddarknessarealwaysusedtogetherinmetaphoricalterms．Lightisconnectedwithgoodthingslikefreedom，libertyandhopewhiledarknessisassociatedwimnegativethings．Becauseofitscontrastwithdarkness，lightalwaysreferstopositiveevaluation．Metaphorscontainedin(43)provehowsignificantthepoliticalpromiseoffreedomandAmericanspiritareforachievingpoliticalprospect．Besides，sincelightisanecessaryconditiontoseesomething，thereisallimplicationthatonecouldgetlostwithoutlight．In(44)，thelightofenergy,faithanddevotionguideAmericaandthewholeworldtogotowardsabrightfutureofhumansociety．Firemetaphorscanconveysimilarevaluationbecauseofitsqualityofproducinglight，whichCanbepenetratedbythewordsofflame,rekindleandglow．Inaword，lightandfiremetaphorscarrypositiveevaluationintheAPIAs，fortheysymbolizehope，powerand．brightness，throughwhichthepresidentscouldmotivatepeople’SconfidenceinAmericanfutureandpersuadethemtorespondpositivelytothegovernment’Sleadership．WeatherMetaphorAnotherminorcategoryinthecorpusisweathermetaphor．Weatherasasourcedomainofnaturalphenomenonisalwaysassociatedwiththeconceptofchange．InAPIAs，49 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文thepresidentsconceptualizedpoliticalsituationintothedomainofweathertoinformpeoplethecomplexdomesticandinternationalcircumstancesandcreateappropriatepoliticalatmosphere．MetaphorsofthiscategoryinthetargettextsCanbesummarizedasPOLITICALSITUATIONISWEATHER，谢ththemappingstructureshowninFigure4．11．SourcedomainTargetdomain、砸Ar耻RPOLrrICALSITU／蛆’IONWind，tide，lightning；Changesand仃endofGoodweather(breeze，l惭；◇politicalsituation；Goodsitumionforsocialsunshine，spring，etc．)；development；Badweather(tempest，Difficultiesandproblemsstorms，etc．)Figure4．11Cross—domainmappingofPOLITICALSITUATIONISWEATHERExamplescanbeexaminedinthefollowingsentences．(46)“⋯alltheglobethereharshlyblowthewindsofchange．”(DwightDavidEisenhower,1957)(47)‘'Nonation，howeveroldorgreat，escapesthistempestofchangeandturmoil．”(DwightDavidEisenhower,1957)(48)“⋯peacemaybetheonlyclimatepossibleforhumanlifeitself．”(DwightDavidEisenhower，1957)(49)“Weliveinaworldthatislitbylightning．”(RonaldReagan，1985)(50)“Foranewbreezeisblowing⋯．itsoldideasblownawaylikeleavesfromanancient，lifelesstree．”(GeorgeBush，1989)Asthesentencesdemonstrate，ourknowledgethatweatherkeepschangingprovidesarichresourcetodescribethetrendofworldsituation．AfterWorldWarII，therehavebeentremendouschangesineveryaspect．Theyarelikeharshwindsthatblowacrossalltheglobe(46)orunexpectedlightningthatisabruptandevenshocking(49)．Aspeoplepreferthegentleandstableweather；likewise，peaceisthemostsuitableclimatepossibleforhumanlifeitself,asexpressedin(48)．However,badsituationssuchasturmoilandthreatsareliketempest(47)thatgoagainstthesteadydevelopmentofhumansociety．Tosumup，weathermetaphorsassociatethecomplicatedpoliticalsituationswithpeople’Smost50 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文familiarexperiencesintheirphysicalenvironmentofeverydaylife．Throughweathermetaphors，thepresidentscouldremindAmericanpeopleofthedomesticandinternationalconditionsandconvincethemtobravelyconfrontwithterribleweather(hardshjpanddifficulties)andtakefulladvantagesofthepeaceclimate．StagemetaphorStagemetaphoraccountsfortheminimumpercentageinthecorpus(only2％)，butitstillplaysanimportantpartintransmittingthegovernment’Spoliticalideology．Figure4．12illustratesthecross-domainmappingoftheunderlyingconceptualmetaphorTHEWORIDISAS孔～GE．SourcedomainSTAGETargetdomainTHEwoRLDNationsoftheworld；M蛳》AmericaFigure4．12Cross—domainmappingofTHEWORLDISASTAGEMotivatedbyconceptualmetaphorTHEWoI也DISASTAGE，therearemetaphoricalexpressionasillustratedinthefollowingsamplesentences：(51)‘'America’Sroleisindispensableinpreservingtheworld’Speace⋯”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)(52)“Then，inturmoilandtriumph，thatpromiseexplodedontotheworldstagetomakethistheAmericanCentury．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1973)(53)“⋯Americamustplayitsroleinusheringinaneweraofpeace．”(BarackObama,2009)Theworldisanalogizedasastageandnationsareactorsinaplay．Everynationplaysaparticularroleandshouldactwellitsownpart．Americaproclaimsitselfastheleadingrole；thus，thereappearmetaphoricallinguisticexpressionslike‘'America’Sroleisindispensable’’and“itsroleinusheringinanewera'’．Eventhethemeofthestageplayis“AmericanCentuq'’，asshownin(52)．Fromthestagemetaphors，itCanbedrawnthathegemonismhasbeenembeddeddeeplyinthemindsofAmericanpoliticianssincetheend 万方数据ofWbrldW甜II．ResultsofaboveanalysesshowthattherearetotallyeleventypesofconceptualmetaphorssummarizedfromthemetaphoricalexpressionsinAPIAs．Thoseconceptualmetaphorsarecross．mappingsfromconcretesourcedomainstoabstracttargetdomains，whichfunctioninpromotingthepresidents’governingphilosophy,stirringpeople’Semotion，achievingpersuasiongoalsandrevealingAmericanpoliticalideology．However,thatisnotthewholepresentationofmetaphoranalysisinthisstudy．Inthefollowingpart，theauthorwillpresentthediachronicchangesofmetaphorapplicationinthepastyearsandexplainmetaphorchoicesinadetailedway．4．3ExplainingMetaphorChangesfromaDiachronicPerspectiveInthissection，theauthortakesanoverviewofthegeneraldistributionofmetaphorsinAPIAsfromPresidentTruman(1949)toObama(2013)basedonthestatisticscollectedintheprevioussection，andthenthediachronicchangesofparticularmetaphorcategoryacrosstheyearsarediscussedinordertouncoverthereasonsformetaphorchoicesand，furthermore．revealtheirideologicalfunctionsinAmericanPresidentialInauguralAddresses．4．3．1GeneralDistributionofMetaphorsFigure4．13isthegeneralrepresentationofmetaphordistributioninAPIAsrangingfrom1949to2013．ThehorizontalaxisrepresentstheyearwheneachAPIAwasdeliveredandtheverticalonereferstotokennumbersofmetaphorcategories．52Figure彳．13GeneraldistributionofmetaphorsinAPIAs 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ItcanbeobservedfromthefigurethatmetaphorispervasivelyutilizedbyAmericanpresidentsintheirinauguralspeeches，whichprovestheimportanceofmetaphorinpoliticallanguage．Whenfurtherexaminingmetaphorapplicationineachaddressfrom1949to2013，wefindmetaphorsfromtheSOurCedomainsofwar,joumey,human，buildingandfamilyareuninterruptedlydistributedinthechosenAPIAs，whilethoseoftheotherthreeminorones(1ight／fire，weather,stage)haveonlyscatteredoccurrence．Itsuggeststhat，sincetheendofWorldWarII，thefivedominanttypesofmetaphorarethemainconceptualmodelsutilizedfororganizingthestructureofAmericanpresidentialinauguralspeeches．Besides，thosemetaphorsarenotevenlydistributedinthe17politicalspeechesbutoccurwithhighfrequencyonsomeoccasionswhilesometimesflowdownatalowerlevelinothertexts．Theauthorassumesthatthechangesofmetaphorapplicationshouldbeconnectedwithparticularsocialcontext，andviceverse，thepresidentsintentionallyemploycertainmetaphorstomotivatepeopletorespondactivelytopoliticalsituation．Forthoseconsiderations，thedistributivetrendsofthosefivemetaphorcategoriesarediscussedrespectivelyinthefollowingpart．4．3．2DiachronicDistributionofWarMetaphorFigure4．14reflectsthediachronicchangesofwarmetaphorapplicationinAPIAsfrom1949to2013．Figure4．14DiachronicdistributionofwarmetaphorByexaminingthefluctuationofthedistributivecurvefromthefigure，itisfoundthattheutilizationofwarmetaphorchangesenormouslyalongthehistoricaldevelopmentfrom1949to2013．ThissuggeststhatAmericahasbeenconfrontedwithvariouspolitical53 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文challengesanddifficultiesastheinternationalanddomesticsituationschangerapidlysincetheendofWorldⅥ协II．Asthefigureshows，thenumberoftokensaroundtheyear1949，1953，1961，1981，1985，2005and2009orehighercomparedtothatinotheroccasions．WhenTrumanassumedhisofficein1949，whatheconfrontedwerepostwarchallengesbothathomeandabro缸卜_poverty,unemployment，economicdecline，andmostseriously,theexpansionoftheSovietUnion．Thus，inhisinauguraladdress，hestructuredthosepoliticalproblemswiththeconceptofwarinordertostirpeople’Semotionoffightingagainstsocialevils．Examplesareofferedasfollows：(54)“⋯theUnitedStatesandotherlike．mindednationsfindthemselvesdirectlvopposedbyaregimewithcontraryaims⋯”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(55)“Wehavebeatenbackdespairanddefeatism．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)Actually,theendofWorldWarIIinitiatedtheColdWarbetweenAmericaandtheSovietUnion，whichlastedseveraldecades．In1953whenEisenhowerwaselectedaspresident，crisisandconflictkeptescalatingastheColdWarbecameanincontestablefact．Ashedeliveredinhisspeeches：(56)“⋯thatwilldetertheforcesofaggressionandpromotetheconditionsofpeace．，’(DwightDavidEisenhower,1953)In(56)，PresidentEisenhowerused“detertheforcesofaggression'’topersuadecitizenstosupportforhisforeignpoliciesofcons仃ainingcommunismspreadinginthenameofdefendingfreedom．DuringEisenhower’Sfirstterm，astheKoreanWarendedarldeconomicconditionsimproved，heintendedtoeasetheColdWartension．Therefore．inhissecondinauguraladdress，theuseofWarmetaphordeclinedmarkedly．HoweveLinthefollowingyears，bothtwopowerswereinvolvedintheVietnameseWar．What，smore．thetwosideslaunchedanarmsraceandthethreatofnuclearweaponbecameanewenemvforAmerica．ThatWaswhytheapplicationofwarmetaphorreachedanewhighin1961．Forexample：(57)“⋯bothsidesbeginanewthequestforpeace．beforethedarkpowersofdestructionunleashedbyscienceengulfallhumanity．．．”(JohnF．Kennedy,1961)(58)“Canweforgesagainsttheseenemiesagrandandglobalalliance⋯，’(JohnF．丐4 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Kennedy,1961)Consideringtheseriousconsequencesofthedeadlyatomicweaponsin(57)，thepresidentutilizedwarmetaphortoremindtheaudienceofthedestructiveeffectofnuclearweaponifthetwopowerscametostartrealWar．Inexample(58)，PresidentKennedyquestedforglobalcooperationtoboycottnuclearweapons．ThissuggestedAmerica’Spoliticalintentionofeasingtensesituation．Therefrom，therelationshipofbothsidesenteredaperiodofalleviation．Thus，intheaddressesfrom1965to1977，thenumberofwarmetaphortokenswasnotaslargeasbefore．Butduringthisperiod，thepresidentsstillusedanumberofwarmetaphorstoclaimtheirdeterminationofovercomingotherpoliticalproblems．Forexample：(59)“⋯thisinjusticetoourpeople，thiswasteofourresources，wasOUrrealenemy。”(LyndonBainesJohnson，1965)IIlthetwoaddressesdeliveredbyReaganin1981and1985，thenumberofWarmetaphorWaslargeragain．ThatWasbecauseReaganhadtoundertaketheburdenofsolvingeconomiccrisisathomeaswellasconfrontingintensivereawakeningofColdWartensionsinthelate1970sandearly1980s．Undersuchcircumstances，ReaganintendedtoinspireAmericanstoovercomedomesticcrisis，andatthesametime，supportthegovernmenttosetamassivemilitarybuild-upinordertochallengetheSovietUnion’sinfluencearoundtheworld．Therefore，heexpressedhispoliticalideologybywarmetaphorasfollows：(60)‘‘EndinginflationmeansfreeingallAmericansfromtheterrorofrunawaylivingcosts．”(RonaldReagan，1981)(61)‘'Asfortheenemiesoffreedom，．．．willberemindedthatpeaceisthehighestaspirationoftheAmericanpeople．”(RonaldReagan，1981)From1989to2001，thefrequencyofwarmetaphorskeptatlowlevel，whichcloselyrelacedtothefactthattheSovietUnioncollapsedandAmericabecametheworld’Ssolesuperpower．Sincethen，politicalproblemsforAmericaswitchedtonewchallenges·September1terroristattacksin2001andthefinancialcrisisin2008pulledwarmetaphorusetonewheightsinBush’SandObama’Sinauguraladdresses(asFigure14shows)·Inthe2005speech，Bushstated：55 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文(62)“⋯yearsofrepose，yearsofsabbatical--andthentherecanleadayoffire．”(GeorgeWalkerBush，2005)(63)“Youhaveseenthatlifeisfragile，andevilisreal，andcouragetriumphs．，，(GeorgeWalkerBush，2005)September1attackawakenedAmericanpeoplefrompeacefullives．Aftertheattack，PresidentGeorgeBushsaidhewouldstarta‘‘WaronTerror'，．HecalledforAmericanstoprotectthemselvesandtheirpropertyfromterroristsandstopterrorisminthefuture。Thus，heusedmassofWarmetaphorstopersuadeAmericanstosupporthiscounter-terrorismpolicies．Thefinancialcrisisin2008entrappedAmericabackintorecession．Again，inordertoenhancepeople’Sconfidencetopullthroughthecrisis，PresidentObamautilizedwarmetaphorstoarousepeople’Sfightingemotionagainsteconomicdifficulties．Inhisspeech，wecanfindthefollowingmetaphoricalexpressions：(64)“Ournationisatwar,againstafar-reachingnetworkofviolenceandhatred．，，(BarackObama，2009)(65)“Onthisday,wegatherbecausewehavechosenhopeoverfear,unityofpurposeoverconflictanddiscord．”(BarackObama,2009)Fromtheaboveanalysis，itCanbeconcludedthatimportantsocialeventsgreatlyinfluencetheapplicationofwarmetaphorfrom1949to2013．WhenAmericanconf}ontedwithsocialproblemsandconflicts，thepresidentswouldusewarmetaphortotransmittheirgoverningphilosophyinpeople’SmindsandpersuadethemtostruggleagainstanyforcesthatwoulddiminishAmericaninterests．4．3·3DiachronicDistributionofJourneyMetaphorFigure4．15isthediachronicdistributionofjourneymetaphorinAPIAssincetheendofWorldWarII．Comparedwiththefrequentfluctuationofwarmetaphor,thedistributionofjourneymetaphorisrelativelystableinAPIAsfrom1949to2013，exceptthetwolargernumbersaroundtheyear1969and1997．Inthefollowingpart，therelativestabilityofjoumeymetaphoranditstwopeaksoftokensaretobeexplainedindetails． 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Figure4．15DiachronicdistributionofjourneymetaphorThestabilityofjourneymetaphoristosomeextentconnectedwiththecontinuityofAmericanvaluesandleadershipphilosophy．Sincethe‘‘Mayflower'’landedonthenorthAmericancontinent，ithasbeentheverycorespiritofAmericanstoexplorenewworldanddevotethemselvestoreestablishaparadiseoffreedombasedontheguidelineofAlmightyGod．Intheirgrimstruggleforsurvival，Americanpioneersformedacharacterofbeingadventurous，ambitious，industriousandforgingaheadbravely，whichhavepassedonasvaluabletraditionstotheirlatergenerations．AfterthefoundingofAmerica,thecreedsoffreedom，equalityandjusticealsohavepassedonasAmerica’Sfirmbeliefandultimategoalsofpoliticalpursuit．EachAmericanpresidentwouldemphasizethecontinuityofAmericanhistoryandundertaketheburdenofleadingAmericanstothedestinationofajoumeythattheirpredecessorshavelongcherished．Therefore，intheinauguraladdresses，joumeymetaphorswereneverabsent．ThepresidentsusedsuchmetaphorstorecoverAmericancitizens’strongbeliefontheirtraditionalvaluesandpersuadeAmericancitizenstokeepmakingeffortsforachievingpoliticalgoals．ThisCallbeseenfromtheexamplesentences：(66)“Butinanothersense，Ournewbeginningisacontinuationofthatbeginningcreatedtwocenturiesago．”(RonaldReagan，1985)(67)“AndthoughOurnationhassometimeshalted,andsometimesdelayed,wemustfollownoothercourse．”(GeorgeWalkerBush，2001)(68)“⋯werefusedtoletthisjourneyend,⋯wedidnotturnbacknordidwefalter．”(BarackObama，2009)Thenumberofjourneymetaphortokensreachedahighvaluein1969asdemonstratedinthefigure．ItWasobservedthatithadastrongassociationwiththegreat57 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文successofAmerica’spaceprogram．In1968，AmericasuccessfullylaunchedApollo8，thefirstmannedspacecrafttoreachthemoon，demonstratingtotheworldanoutstandingachievementofAmericanspacescienceandtechnology．What’Smore，thespaceracebetweentheUSandtheSovietUnionalsoculminatedintheApolloMoon．1andings．、析thAmericarunningaheadandwinninganabsolutedominanceinspacescience．Undersuchcircumstances，PresidentNixonappliedjourneymetaphortodefineAmerica’Sleadingpositionandindicateitsambitionofadventuringthespaceworld．Inhisspeech，hesaid：(69)“Wehavemadeenormousstridesinscienceandindustryandagriculture．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1969)(70)“Iaskyouto弘觑锄aJII勘adventure．．．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1969)(71)‘'Thosewhohavebeenteflout,wewilltrytobring跏．Those／eftbehind,wewillhelptocatchup．”(RichardMilhousNixon，1969)Obviously,Americaextendedits‘'joumey'’outtothespace，claimingitselfastheleaderorguideofthelongadventure．Italsotookitselftheresponsibilitytohelpthosel呼behindtocatchupandinvitethose坳outtojoinintheprocession．Inthesameyear,Apollo1WaslaunchedandArmstrongbecamethefirstmantosteponthemoon．ThiseventeffectivelyendedtheSpaceRaceandAmericaconsolidatedhisleadingpositioninafurtherway．Anotherpeaknumberoccurredin1997．TheexplanationforthisshiftWastheadventofthe218‘century．Theturnofanewcenturyalwayssuggestsanewbeginningforallhumanbeings，asClintonsaidinhisspeech，“ItisourgreatgoodfortunethattimeandchancehaveputUSnotonlyattheedgeofanewcentury,．．．amomentthatwilldefineourcourse，andOurcharacter,fordecadestocome．”Thus，intheinauguraladdress，thepresidentexpressedgoodprospectforthefuture．Forexample：(72)“Aswelookbackatthisremarkablecentury,wemayask，Canwehopenotjusttofollow,buteventosurpasstheachievementsofthe20thcenturyinAmerica．’’(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1997)(73)“Withanewvisionofgovemment，anewsenseofresponsibility,anewspiritofcommunity,wewillsustainAmerica’sjourney．”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1997)58Astheexamplesshow,bymappingnationorworlddevelopmentintothedomainof 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文journey,PresidentClintonmotivatedpeople’Senthusiasmtostriveforbetterdevelopmentinthenewperiod．Heencouragedpeopletogof．ortll，tosurpassthepreviousachievementsandsustainAmerica’sjourneytoabrightfuture．4．3．4DiaehronieDistributionofHumanmetaphorAsoneofthemostimportantmetaphorcategoriesinAPIAs，humanmetaphorsaccountforabout17％，andthedistributioncurveofthiscategoryisthemoststableoneamongthefivedominantmetaphorcategories，asillustratedinFigure4．16．Figure4．16DiachronicdistributionofhumanmetaphorThereasonwhyhumanmetaphorshavebeenusedpervasivelyandsteadilyinthecorpusisthattheyplayanimportantroleinstimulatingpeople’Sconsonancetothepresidents’leadershipphilosophythroughconceptualizingabstractpoliticalissuesintopeople’Smostfamiliarexperience．Therelativelylargernumberofhumanmetaphortokensoccurredintheperiodof1949．1953．Inthetwoinauguraladdresses，metaphorsabout‘'humanhealth'’and‘'humanrelationship”alefrequentlyemployed．Forexample：(74)“WewillcontinueOurprogramsforworldeconomicrecovery．”(HarryS·Truman，1949)(75)“Ifwearetobesuccessfulincarryingoutthesepolicies，⋯wemustkeepourselvesstrong．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(76)“⋯westandreadytoengagewithanyandallothersinjointefforttoremovethecausesofmutualfearanddistrustamongnations．”(HarryS．Truman，1953)ExperiencingWardestruction，thewholeworldwasdramaticallydamaged·In59 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文Truman’Sinauguraladdress，heappliedhumanmetaphorstoemphasizetheimportanceofrestoringtheworld’Shealthdevelopment，especiallytheeconomicrecovery．Besides，thepresidentremindedhispeoplethatonlyifAmericake：ptstrongcouldtheyenjoyacontinuedprosperity,asshownin(75)．NationalrelationshipWasalsoconceptualizedashumanrelations．Expressionslike‘'jointefforts”，“removefearanddistrust”in(76)wereusedtoaccountforthepresident’Sforeignpolicies．Bymeansofthosehumanmetaphors，wecouldfindAmerica’SpoliticalintentionofconstitutinggoodrelationswithcapitalistcountriesaftertheWarSOastostrengthenitsownpoweragainstitsadversariesandsecureaglobalhegemony．4．3．5DiachronicDistributionofBuildingMetaphorBuildingmetaphoractsasthefourthimportantcategory,constitutingabout13％ofthewholemetaphortokens．Figure4．17reflectsthechangesofbuildingmetaphorutilizationinAPIAsfrom1949to2013．Figure4．17DiachronicdistributionofbuildingmetaphorSimilartothedistributionofjourneymetaphor,buildingmetaphorisappliedinarelativelystablenumberacrossthesixdecadesafterWorldWarII，exceptfortwoextremenumbersthatOCCurin1949and1993．Buildingmetaphorsarealwayschosenasanimportantlanguagestrategyinthosespeechesbecauseadministratinganationisjustlikeleadingabuildingprojectwhichneedspredetermineddesignationandpeople’Scooperativework．EveryAmericanpresidentwouldconceptualizesocialdevelopmentintobuildingconceptwiththepurposeofcombiningAmericanpeople’Seffortstoreachpoliticalgoalsintheirfour．year 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文administration．ThatiswhybuildingmetaphorsarefrequentlyemployedinAPIAs．AftertheendofWorldWarII，Americawascommittedtoreestablishtheworldorderbyitsownwill．Intheinauguraladdressof1949，PresidentTrumanconceptualizedhisforeignpoliciesintoconcretebuildingproject，resultinginthehigherfrequencyofbuildingmetaphorapplication．Herearesomeexamplesentences：(77)“Wehaveencouraged，bypreceptandexample，theexpansionofworldtradeonasoundandfairbasis．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(78)“Wearemovingonwithothernationstobuildanevenstrongerstructureofinternationalorderandjustice．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)(79)“Whatweenvisageisaprogramofdevelopmentbasedontheconceptsofdemocraticfair-dealing．”(HarryS．Truman，1949)In1948，AmericalaunchedEuropeanRecoveryProgramwiththegoalsofrebuildingwar-devastatedregions，removingtradebarriersandmodernizingindustryinEurope．Therefore，thepresidentstatedthatwoddeconomymustbeexpandedonasoundandfairbasis，asshownin(77)．In(78)，Americainvitedothernations(mainlyEuropeancountries)tobuildastrongerstructureofworldorder．ThebuildingprojectwasdesignedbyAmerica·ItWasbasedontheconceptofdemocracy,andaccordedwithwhatAmericaenvisaged，asillustratedin(79)．ThisrevealedAmerica’SrealintentionofsecuringitsglobalhegemonybyforgingtheNorthAtlanticalliancethatwouldhelpstrengthenitspowerintheColdWar．In1991，withthecollapseoftheSovietUnion，internationalsituationexperiencedanothertremendouschange．Americabecametheonlysuperpowerintheworld．FromClinton’Sinauguraladdressin1993，wecanfredlotsofbuildingmetaphorsthatsuggestAmerica，sattemptofseizingitsopportunitiestorebuildtheinternationalorderandtake、Ⅳorldsituationunderitsowncontr01．thefollowingsentencesarechosenfromthetargettext．(80)“ProfoundandpowerfulforcesareshakingandremakingOurworld⋯”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1993)(81)“WhileAmericarebuildsathome，wewillnot⋯，norfailtoseizetheopportunities，ofthisnewworld．”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1993) 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文(82)“Ourhopes，Ourhearts，Ourhands，are谢ththoseoneverycontinentwhoarebuildingdemocracyandfreedom．”(WilliamJeffersonClinton，1993)TheendoftheColdWarmeantthepassofoldorder．Americarealizedthenewworldwasfreebutnotstable，forotherpowerfulforceshaveappearedandattemptedtoshakeandremaketheworldmansion(80)．Atthesametime，thiswasalsoagreatopportunityforAmericatorebuildastructureoftheworld(81)．Besides，asexpressedin(82)，Americawasevendeterminedtointerfereothernations’domesticaffairsinthenameofbuildingdemocracyandfreedom．AllthosebuildingmetaphorsfullyexposedAmerica’Spoliticalideologyofdominatingthewholeworld．4．3．6DiachronicDistributionofFamilyMetaphorFigure4．18showsthetrendoffamilymetaphorapplicationinAPIAsfromTrumantoObama．Figure4．18DiachronicdistributionoffamilymetaphorGenerallyspeaking，thedistributionoffamilymetaphorsisstationary．Familymetaphorcanshortenthepsychologicaldistancebetweeneachotherandpromoteunity，whichbringsaboutthefrequentemergenceofitsapplicationintheinauguraladdresses．Mostaddressescontain5-10tokensrespectively，exceptforanobviousshiftintheaddressesof2009and2013，bothdeliveredbyBarackObama．ThisCanbeexplainedbyObama’Sindividualfactors．ObamaisthefirstAfricanAmericantoholdthepresidentialoffice．ConsideringtheproblemofracisminAmerica,Obamamayencounterdifficultiesinimplementinghispoliciesinapredominantlywhitesociety．Giventhat，heusedalargenumberoffamilymetaphorstoemphasizedthattheyareallAmericandescendants62 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文regardlessoftheirFace，colorandsocialstatus．Theyshouldunitetogethertocreateabrighterfutureforlatergenerations．Exampleexpressionsarelistedasfollows：(83)“IstandheretodayhumbledbythetaskbeforeUS，．．．mindfulofthesacrificesbornebyourancestors．”(BarackObama，2009)(84)“Forweknowthatourpatchworkheritageisastrength，notaweakness。”(BarackObama，2009)(85)“Itisnowourgeneration"stasktocarryonwhatthosepioneersbegan．”(BarackObama，2013)(86)“We，stillbelievethatourobligationsasAmericansarenotjusttoourselves，buttoallposterity．”(BarackObama，2013)111hisspeeches，Obamausedour“ancestors”in(83)toconveythatallAmericanshavethesameancestorsandtheyarefromacommonfamily．HispurposeistoseizegroupidentificationfromAmericancitizens．Thephrase‘'patchworkheritage”in(84)accountsforthefactthatAmericaisameltingpotofdifferentculturesanddifferentraces．Itisthis“patchwork”culturethatmakesAmericadistinctandstrong，andconstitutesasharedheritageforallAmericans．Nooneshoulddiscriminateortrytoruleoutanycultureofanyrace．BaSedonthesestatements，Obamaturnedtodefinehisgoverningpoliciesasacontinuityoftheirfamily’senterprise．Hewouldleadthenewgenerationtocarryonthetaskoftheirforefathers(85)．What’Smore，heemphasizedthetaskofthecontemporarygenerationisnotonlyforthemselvesbutfortheir‘'posterity'’(86)．Bymentioningthebenefitsoffuturegenerations，thepresidentattemptedtoarousepeopleSsenseotresponsibilityasfamilymembersandpromoteAmericanunity．Tosumup，Obamaemployedmanyfamilymetaphorstoeliminatepeople’sskepticismforhisethnicoriginononehand．Attllesametime，throughthosefamilymetaphors，hepersuadedAmericancitizenstoaccepthispoliciesandcombinetogethertostrivefortheircommoninterests·4．4SummaryThischapterdealswiththedetailedanalysisofmetaphorapplicationinAPIAs·FrommeIIletaphorstatistics，itisfoundtheconceptsofwar，journey，human，building，family，63 万方数据light／fire，weatherandstagealemainlyusedassourcedomainstopresentAmericanpresidents’politicalideasintheirinauguraladdresses．Besides，elevenconceptualmetaphorsthatunderliesthesurfacemetaphorusearegeneralized．Table4．2isasummaryofthoseconceptualmetaphors．Table4．2SummaryofConceptualMetaphorsinAPIAsMetaphorcategoryConceptualmetaphorWar；POLITICSISWAR；Journey；Human；Building；Family；Light／Fire；Weather；StageNAnONALDEVELOPMENTISAJOURNEXWORLDDEVELOPMENTISAJOI『IiNEY．NAnONISHI，MAN：NATIONAI，DEⅦLOPN匝NTISBUILD【NG，WORLDDEVELOPM匝NTISBUILDING：ANAll0NISAFAM几Y，THEWORLDISAFAMILY；POLmCALPROSPECTISLIGHT／FIRE；POLmCALSlTUArIONISWEAT唧R：THEWORLDISASTAGEThepresidentsapplywhatisfamiliarinpeople’Severydayexperiencetoconvincetheaudienceoftherationalityoftheirpolicies．Besides，thoseconceptualmodelsCanrevealpoliticalideology．Especiallyinthosemetaphorsinvolvingworldissues，Americaproclaimsitselfas‘'theguideofworlddevelopingjoumey”，“thedesignerofworldbuilding'’，‘％eelderbrotherofworldfamily”and‘'theleadingroleontheworldstage”，whichfullydiscloseAmericanpoliticalideologyofhegemonismaftertheendofWorldWarII．Atthesanaetime，America’SintentionofpursuingglobalcooperationisreflectedbysomehighlightedaspectsinWar，humanandfamilymetaphors．Fromthediachronicperspective，itisfoundthatobviouschangesofcertainmetaphorapplicationarecloselyassociated、析thimportantsocialeventsthatoccurredbeforeorsoonaftertheinauguraladdresses．DuringtheperiodfromtheendofWorldWarIIuptillnow,importanteventssuchastheColdWar(1947—1991)，ApolloMoonlandingsin1968，economiccrisisinthe1980s，arrivalofthe21stcentury,September1attacksin2001andfinancialcrisisaround2008，havesignificantlyinfluencedthechoicesofparticular 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文metaphorapplication．Besides，ThedistributivetrendsofjourneyandbuildingmetaphorscanreflectthestabilityofAmericanpoliticaldevelopmentwhilethatofwarmetaphorshowthevarietyofpoliticalsituationssincetheendofWorldWarII．Inaword，metaphoruseinAPIAsisaconsciousselectionoflinguisticformtomakeadiscoursepersuasive，andthepersuasiveeffectofmetaphorinthediscourseCanbeeffectivelyexplainedwithinthesocialandhistoricalcontext．65 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文ChapterFiveConclusionThepresentstudyisconductedundertheassumptionthatbytakingmetaphoranalysisbackintohistoricalcontext，wecanbetterexplainwhycertainmetaphorsarepreferredandfurtherrevealthehiddenideologicalmessagesinAPIAs．UndertheframeworkofCriticalMetaphorAnalysis，theauthoranalyzesmetaphorsinAPIAsdeliveredsincetheendofWorldWarIIfrombothsynchronicanddiachronicperspectives．Thischapterisaconclusiverepresentationofthisstudy．Majorfindingsarefirstconcluded；andthenresearchlimitationsandsuggestionsareofferedattheendofthischapter．5．1MajorFindingsoftheStudyInthisthesis，metaphorapplicationinAPIAsisanalyzedinthreestages．Theyareidentificationofmetaphorcategories，interpretationofunderlyingconceptualmetaphorsandexplanationofmetaphorchangesacrosssixdecadessincetheendofWorldWarII．Whathasbeenfoundinthisstudycomeintothefollowingconclusions：1)AgreatmanyofthemetaphorsthatareusedinAPIAsCanbegroupedintoeightcategorieswithreferencetotheirsourcedomains．Theyarewarmetaphor,journeymetaphor,humanmetaphor,buildingmetaphor,familymetaphor,light／firemetaphor,weathermetaphorandstagemetaphor．Theanalysishasshownthatwar,journey,human，buildingandfamilyarehighlyproductivesourcedomainsinthetargetinauguraladdresses，accountingforalmost85％ofalltheutilizedmetaphors．2、Elevenconceptualmetaphorsaregeneralizedinthetargetpoliticaladdresses．Thoseconceptualmetaphorsareallstructuredasdomainmappingsfrompeople’sfamiliareverydayexperienceontocomplexpoliticalissues，whichsatisfythepresidents’pragmaticaimsofpersuadingtheaudiencetoreceivetheirpoliticalvalues．What’smore，metaphorprovesitselfasanimportantinstrumenttorevealtheunderlyingideologyofAmericangovernment．Throughthejoumey,buildingandstagemetaphors，itcanbefoundthatAmericaattemptedtodominatetheworldaftertheendofWorldWarII．Atthesametime， 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文somehighlightedaspectsinwar,humanandfamilymetaphorsreflectAmerica’Sintentionofpursuingglobalcooperationtodealwithworld-wideproblems．3)Fromtheperspectiveofdiachronicanalysis，themajorfindingsCanbepresentedintwoaspects：Firstly,particularmetaphorchoicesinAPIAsarecloselyassociatedwiththesocialcontext．Thesuddenshiftsinthefrequencyofacertaintypeofmetaphorareattachedwiththeoccurrenceofimportantsocialevents，suchasthecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1991andthefinancialcrisisaroundtheyearof2008．Secondly，thedistributivetrendsofmetaphorusagetosomeextentreflectthestabilityandvarietyofAmericanpoliticaldevelopmentfrom1949to2013．Thedistributionsofjourneymetaphorandbuildingmetaphorarerelativelystable，whichimplythecontinuityofAmericangoverningprinciples．Meanwhile，warmetaphorundergoesmoreshifts．ItindicatesthatAmericahasbeendealingwithvariouspoliticalchallengesanddifficultiesasthepoliticalsituationskeepchangingrapidlysincetheendofWorldWarII．5．2LimitationsandSuggestionsByanalyzingmetaphorsinAPIAsfrombothasynchronicanddiachronicperspectives，thepresentstudyprovidesamorecomprehensivemethodinexplaininghowmetaphorsarechosentoachievepersuasionandtransmitpoliticalvalues．ThisstudyfurtherexplorestheuIldedyingideologyofAmericangovernmentsincetheendofWorldWarII，whichenrichesmetaphorresearchesinpoliticaldiscourse．HoweveLduetotheauthor’slackofknowledgeandlimitedresearchtimeinfinishingthisthesis，therestillexistsomedrawbacksthatCanbeimprovedinfuturestudies．Firstly,sincethepresentstudyinvolvesmuchqualitativeanalysis，thereisinevitablyanelementofsubjectivityintheprocessofresearchingmetaphors，especiallyinthestageofmetaphoridentification．Forfuturestudies，amorescientificmethodofidentifyingmetaphorsisneededtomakethestatisticsmorereliable·Secondly,inthisstudy,metaphorchoicesareexplainedwithreferencetothesocialcontext．讹chisco皿ectedwithAmericanhistoryandmanyculturalelements．Butduetomeauthor，slimitedknowledgeinthisaspect，metaphoranalysisofthisstudyisfarfrom67 万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文exhaustive．Thus，similarstudiesinthefutureshouldbeconductedONasolidbasisofbackgroundknowledge．Atlast，consideringtheendofWorldWarIIsignifiesanimportantdivisionforthehistoryofAmericaandthewholeworld，thediachronicresearchscopeofthisstudyisAPIAsrangingfrom1949to2013，whichisonlyasmallpartofalltheAPIAsacrossover200years．Ifpossible，thefuturestudyCanexpandthescopeandobservethemetaphorchangesinalongertimespan． 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万方数据山东大学硕士学位论文AcknowledgementsAtthismoment，Ianlparticularlygratefulforallthosewhohaveofferedmemuchhelpinthecompletionofthisthesis．First，1wanttoexpressmysinceregratitudetomysupervisor,Prof．WangXiangyun．Withouthispatientandcarefulinstruction，itwouldhavebeenimpossiblefor、metofinishthepresentthesis．Iariaespeciallythankfulforhisenlighteningguidanceinmythree—yearuniversitylife．Ibenefitalotfromeveryconversationwithhim．Henotonlyteachesmehowtoconductacademicresearch，butmoreimportantly,guidesmetotllinkaboutlifeandbehaverighteously,which1willtreasureforever．Second，lotsofthanksshouldbegiventoallotherprofessorsandteacherswhohavetaughtmeinthepastthreeyears．Theyunreservedlyimpartmevaluableknowledgeandscientificresearchmethods．TheirwisdomandteachingstyleshavewidenedmyhorizonandleftmepreciousmemoriesinShandongUniversity．Thanksalsogotomyclassmatesandfriendsfortheirconstantencouragementandgeneroushelpinmyprocessofwritingthisthesis．Atlast，1wouldliketovoicethedeepestthankstomybelovedparents，whoseunconditionalsupportandselflesslovehaveenabledmetofinishmystudy．