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写作辅导考博英语作文模板来源:考试365作者:考试365日期:2006年12月30日访问次数:285 （1）不同观点列举型（选择型） Thereisawidespreadconcernovertheissuethat__作文题目_____.Butitiswellknownthattheopinionconcerningthishottopicvariesfrompersontoperson.Amajorityofpeoplethinkthat_观点一________.Intheirviewsthereare2factorscontributingtothisattitudeasfollows:inthefirstplace,___原因一_______.Furthermore,inthesecondplace,___原因二_____.Soitgoeswithoutsayingthat___观点一_____. People, however, differ in their opinions on this matter. Some people holdtheideathat___观点二_______.Intheirpointofview,ontheonehand，___原因一_______. Ontheotherhand,____原因二_____.Therefore,there isno doubt that___观点二______. AsfarasIamconcerned,I firmly support the view that__观点一或二______. It isnotonlybecause________,butalsobecause_________.Themore_______,themore________.（2）利弊型的议论文Nowadays,thereisawidespreadconcernover(theissuethat)___作文题目______.Infact,therearebothadvantagesanddisadvantagesin__题目议题_____.Generallyspeaking,itiswidelybelievedthereareseveralpositiveaspectsasfollows.Firstly,___优点一______. Andsecondly___优点二_____.JustAsapopularsayinggoes,"everycoinhastwosides",__讨论议题______isnoexception,andinanotherword,itstillhasnegativeaspects.Tobeginwith,___缺点一______.Inaddition, ____缺点二______.Tosumup,weshouldtrytobringtheadvantagesof__讨论议题____intofullplay,andreducethedisadvantagestotheminimumatthesametime.Inthatcase,wewilldefinitelymakeabetteruseofthe____讨论议题___.（3）答题性议论文 Currently,thereisawidespreadconcernover(theissuethat)__作文题目_______.Itisreallyanimportantconcerntoeveryoneofus.Asaresult,wemustsparenoeffortstotakesomemeasurestosolvethisproblem. Asweknowthattherearemanystepswhichcanbetakentoundothisproblem.Firstofall,__途径一______.Inaddition,anotherwaycontributingtosuccessofthesolvingproblemis___途径二_____. Aboveall,tosolvetheproblemof___作文题目______,weshouldfindanumberofvariousways.ButasfarasIamconcerned,Iwouldprefertosolvetheprobleminthisway,thatistosay,____方法_____.（4）谚语警句性议论文 Itiswellknowtousthattheproverb:"___谚语_______"hasaprofoundsignificanceandvaluenotonlyinourjobbutalsoinourstudy.Itmeans____谚语的含义_______.Thesayingcanbeillustratedthroughaseriesofexamplesasfollows.(alsotheoretically) Acaseinpointis___例子一______.Therefore,itisgoeswithoutsayingthatitisofgreatof importancetopracticetheproverb____谚语_____. WiththerapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyinChina,anincreasingnumberofpeoplecometorealizethatitisalsoofpracticalusetosticktothesaying:____谚语_____.Themoreweareawareofthesignificanceofthisfamoussaying,themorebenefitswewillgetinourdailystudyandjob.（5）图表作文的框架 Asisshown/indicated/illustratedbythefigure/percentage in the table(graph/picture/pie/chart),___作文题目的议题_____hasbeenonrise/decrease(goesup/increases/drops/decreases),significantly/dramatically/steadilyrising/decreasingfrom______in_______to______in_____.Fromthesharp/markeddecline/riseinthechart,itgoeswithoutsayingthat________. There are at least two good reasonsaccountingfor______.On the one hand,________.On the other hand, _______is due to the fact that________. In addition,________is responsible for_______. Maybe there are some other reasons to show________. But it is generally believed that the above mentioned reasons are commonlyconvincing. As far as I am concerned, Iholdthepointofviewthat_______.I am sure my opinion is both sound and well-grounded.（6）实用性写作（申请信) Youraddress Month,Date,yearReceiver'saddressDear..., Iamextremelypleasedtohearfromyou./toseeyouradvertisementforthepositionin....AndIwouldliketowritealettertotellyouthat.../IamconfidentthatIamsuitableforthekindofthejobyouareadvertising. .../IfeelIamcompetenttomeettherequirementsyouhavelisted.Ontheonehand,....Ontheotherhand,....Iamenclosingmyresumeforyourkindconsiderationandreference. Ishallbemuchobligedifyouwilloffermeapreciousopportunitytoaninterview.Iwillgreatlyappreciatearesponsefromyouatyourearliestconvenience/Iamlookingforwardtoyourrepliesatyourearliestconvenience.Bestregardsforyourhealthandsuccess.2005年中央党校博士研究生入学英语考试试卷来源:考试365作者:考试365日期:2010年01月18日访问次数:139 笔试部分：（注意：请继续使用机读卡答题）II.VocabularyandStructure(15points)Directions:Thereare15incompletesentencesinthispart,ForeachsentencetherearefourchoicesmarkedA,B,C,andD.ChoosetheONEthatbestcompletesthesentences.ThenmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheetA. 21.Theadvertisingindustryhasresortedtoself-regulationinaseriouseffortto notonlybadtastebutalsomisrepresentationanddeceptionincopyandillustrations.A.abbreviate B.abrogate C.curtail D.discern22.Ifthecheckdoesnotcoverthefullamountofyourmedicalexpense,mailtheMedicareExplanationofBenefits(MEOB)toyourcarrierinordertoreceive forthebalanceofyourexpense.A.endowment B.indorse C.reciprocation D.reimbursement23.Forsomeofthemorepowerfulstates,theseinter-governmentalbureaucraciesarealsowelcome totheauthorityofthesated,sothataveryrealsymbiosisexistsbetweenthenationalbureaucracyandtheinternationalone.A.adjacency B.adjustments C.adjournment D.adjuncts24.Assoonasshesawhimentertheroomshe himandinsistedthathejoinherfordinner.A.boredown B.boredownon C.boreout D.boreup25.Therehavebeenafewpowerfulpoliticalorganizationsthathaveoperatednotjust Onecountrybut nationalborders.A.in…in B.in…at C.within…across D.outof…in26.EventhoughtheItalianauthoritiesmaynolonger anyoldbankthatgetsintotrouble,thelikelihoodofgovernmentsupportforbigbankshasnotchangedenoughtoaffectitsratings.A.bailout B.hangup C.knockover D.lashout27.Politicsistoincludeallactivities othersarepersuadedorcoercedtocollaborateintheachievementofaimsdesignatedanddesiredbyanother.A.bywhich B.atwhich C.inwhich D.ofwhich28. thestructuralimbalancesinthebudget,andalsointheeconomytheAdministrationhasgivenitssupporttoaconstitutionalamendment.A.Torelinquish B.Toremedy C.Redressingfor D.Compensatingto 29.Reasoningpowerscandeteriorate;peoplemaybegintothinkirrationally;theymaybegintofeelthatothersareslylypokingfunatthem,orbeing .A.condescendingorpatronizing B.condescendedorpatronized C.condescendandpatronizing D.condescendedandpatronized30.Men ambitionistheleadingpassionarelikelytolovewomenwhoassistthemintheircareer,anditwouldbeveryshallowpsychologytosupposethattheloveisnotrealbecauseithasitsinstinctiverootinself-interest.A.ofwhom B.inwhose C.inwhom D.withwhom31.Thisinvolvesnotonlytheintroductionofnewpracticesintoasystem,buttheirconsolidationandcontinuationafterthefirstenthusiasticimpulsehas .A.wornaway B.worndown C.wornoff D.wornout32.Althoughherresearchtopichadbeenapprovedbyherthesisadvisor,thelibrarypersisted Thedocuments.A.initsdenialforaccesson B.indenyingheraccesstoC.todenyheraccessto D.withdenyingheraccessfor33.Clearly,“gettingpricesright”andthe“free”and“unhindered”flowofgoodsandserviceswithinandbetweencountriesareprovingtobemoredifficultthan .A.wereonceanticipated B.areonceanticipatedC.wasonceanticipated D.isonceanticipated34.Althoughtherewasnotadeliberateefforttodiscriminate sex,itwasclearthattheopportunitiesforgirlstotakeCDTorforboystotakehomeeconomicswereseverelylimitedbythewaythecurriculumwasorganized.A.to B.from C.infavorof D.onthegroundsof35.Thediffusionofpoweramongsomanygovernments,andfromthemtonon-stateauthoritiesmakesitmoredifficultforpolicy-makerstotake .A.thelong,moresocialandeconomicalenlightenedview B.thelong,moresociallyandeconomicallyenlightenedviewC.thelong,moresocialandeconomicalenlighteningviewD.thelong,moresociallyandeconomicallyenlighteningviewⅢ.Cloze(10points)Directions:Foreachoftheblanks,therearefourchoicesgivenmarkedA,B,C,andD.ChoosetheonethatbestfitstheblankandmarkyourchoicebyblackeningthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheetA. Impatiencecharacterizesyoungintellectualworker.Theywanttomaketheirmarkfast.Soit’simportantto 36 theminachallengingmannertheidea 37 bigachievementsrarelycomeeasilyandquickly.Pointoutthatthelittlesuccessesare 38 .Showthatthey 39 becomethefoundationonwhichreputationsarebuiltand 40 moreimportanttaskscanbeaccomplished. Avarietyofjobassignments,includingjoborprojectrotation,alsokeepajobfrombecomingdull. 41 it’snaturalforsomeindividualstowanttomoveaheadimmediatelytomoredifficultassignments, 42 properguidancetheycancontinuetolearnandtogain 43byworkingonanumberofjobsthatareessentially 44 .Thiswaytheygainbreadth,if 45 . Probablythegreatestoffenseto 46 whendealingwithyoungerspecialistsistorejectideas 47 .Youmustlisten---andlistenobjectively---totheirsuggestions.Avoid 48 overcritical.Youwanttonurtureaninquiringmindwithafreshapproach.You’ll 49 quicklyifyourevert 50 “We’vetriedthatbeforeanditwon’tworkhere.” Onesurewayto 51 youngcollegegraduatesisflagrantlymisusingtheirtalents.Expectthemtodosomeroutinework,ofcourse.Butdon’tmaketheirdailyworkjustonelongseriesoferrands.Thisincludessuchbreak-inassignments 52 performingroutinecalculations,diggingupreferencematerial,andoperatingreproductionequipment.Onelargemanufacturingcompanyrecentlyinterviewedanumberofpromisingengineerswho 53 them.Thecompanyfoundthattheoverwhelmingcomplaintwasthatthecompany 54 didnotofferworkthatwaschallengingbutalsoexpected 55littlefromtheminthewayofperformance.36.A.getdownto B.getacrossto C.getat D.getinto37.A.towhich B.what C.that D.how38.A.valueless B.unimportant C.rare D.essential39.A.inturn B.infuture C.ontime D.atpresent 40.A.onwhich B.fromwhich C.inwhich D.forthat41.A.Whereas B.When C.Because D.But42.A.for B.on C.under D.in43.A.reputation B.importance C.versatility D.knowledge44.A.ofthesamequality B.ofthesamecomplexityC.thesame D.different45.A.thesamewidth B.notlength C.thesameheight D.notdepth46.A.guard B.guardat C.guardagainst D.guardon47.A.outofhand B.athand C.inhand D.onhand48.A.to B.being C.too D.49.A.frustrate B.frustrateit C.befrustrate D.befrustrated50.A.that B.oftenthat C.toooftenthat D.toooftento51.A.disenchant B.enchant C.fascinate D.detract52.A.suchas B.asfor C.e.g. D.as53.A.wouldhaveleft B.haveleft C.hadleft D.willleave54.A. B.only C.either D.notonly55.A.much B.fartoo C.a D.moreⅣ.ReadingComprehension(30points)SectionADirections:Therearefourpassagesinthispart.Eachpassageisfollowedbysomequestionsorunfinishedstatements.ForeachofthemtherearefourchoicesmarkedA,B,CandD.YourshoulddecideonthebestchoiceandmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheetA.Passage1 AfamousNativeAmericanproverbtellsus“Weshouldnotjudgeanotherpersonuntilwehavewalkedtwomoonsinhismoccasins.”Ournextsuggestionforimprovementisabout“wearingthosemoccasins.”Thatis,weneedtodevelopempathy---beabletoseethingsfromthepointofviewofothers.Manyresearchersintheareaofinterpersonalandinterculturalcompetencebelievethatoursuccessascommunicatorsdepends,toalargeextent,onour“skillatestablishingandmaintainingdesiredidentitiesforbothselfandothers.”“Identities”areactuallythepicturesofourselvesandtheotherpersonthatweholdinourheads.WeusethesepicturesItwoways.First,ouridentitieshelpustodefinethemessageswereceivefromothers;andsecond,theyassistusinselectingthemostappropriatemessagetosendtoanotherperson.Wehavealreadydiscussedknowingourselves;ourfocusnowisonourneedtodevelopempathy(emotionalidentification)androle-taking(cognitiveadaptation)competencesothatwecanbetterknowandadjusttotheotherperson. Beforewebeginourdiscussionofempathyandroletaking,weneedtorestatetwoimportantideas.First,aswithsomuchofourcounsel,weareagainfacedwithaskillthatiseasiertotalkaboutthantoputintopractice.Thefactremainsthathoweversimilarwemayappeartobe,thereissomethingdistinctiveanduniqueabouteachofus.Ourinternalstatesareelusiveandfleeting,andweknowthemonlyasdistortedshadows.Knowingtheotherperson,andpredictinghisorherreactionsandneeds,isadifficultandtroublesomeactivity.Andwhenweaddthedimensionofculture,wecompoundtheproblem. Second,althoughwehavefocusedprimarilyonculture,wealsoareconcernedwiththe“interpersonalaspects”ofinterculturalcommunication.Perhapstheinterpersonaldimensionofcommunicationismostevidentintheareaofempathy.AsMillerandSteinbergnoted,“Tocommunicateinterpersonally,onemustheavetheculturalandsociologicallevelsofpredicationsandpsychicallytraveltothepsychologicallevel.”Simplyput,empathy,whileusingknowledgeaboutanother’sculturetomakepredications,alsodemandsthatthepointofanalysisbetheindividualpersonality. Anumberofbehaviorscankeepusfromunderstandingthefeelings,thoughts,andmotivesofanotherperson---regardlessofhisorherculture.Beforewelookatsomeofthewaystoimproveourrole-takingskills,itmightbehelpfultoexamineafewcharacteristicsthatcanimpedeempathy.56.Whatwouldbethemostappropriatetitleforthepassage?A.DevelopEmpathyB.ImportanceofEmpathyC.ImportanceofIdentitiesD.RelationshipbetweenInterpersonalCompetenceandInterculturalCommunication 57.Whydoweneedtodevelopempathyaccordingtothepassage?A.InordertohaveabetterselfidentificationB.Inordertoimproveourrole-takingskillsC.InordertomakebetterpredicationsD.Inordertounderstandbetterandadaptourselvestotheotherperson58.WhichofthefollowingisNOTtrueaccordingtothepassage?A.Inordertocommunicatesuccessfully,weshouldlearntoseethingsfromthepointofviewofothers.B.Toestablishidentitiesforbothselfandothersiseasiersaidthandone.C.It’seasiertounderstandanotherculturethantoknowtheotherpersonandpredicthisorherreactionsandneeds.D.Theindividualpersonalityisanimportantfactorintheareaofempathy.59.Inline5inthesecondparagraph,theword“elusive”couldbereplacedby“________”.A.distractinganddiverseB.hardtocomprehendoridentifyC.hardtocontrolD.tendingtodisappear60.Aparagraphfollowingthepassagewouldmostprobablydiscuss________.A.EstablishingandMaintainingDesiredIdentitiesB.HowtoImproveRole–TakingSkillsC.HindrancestoEmpathyD.ImprovingEmpathyPassage2 Theconflictbetweengoodandevilisacommonthemerunningthroughthegreatliteratureand dramaoftheworld,fromthetimeoftheancientGreekstoallthepresent.Theprinciplethatconflictistheheartofdramaticactionwhenillustratedbyconcreteexamples,almostalwaysturnsupsomeaspectsofthestrugglebetweengoodandevil. Theideathatthereisneithergoodnorevil–inanyabsolutemoralorreligioussense–iswidespreadinourtimes.Therearevariousrelativisticandbehavioristicstandardsofethics.Ifthesestandardsevenadmitthedistinctionbetweengoodandevil,itisarelativematterandnotaswhirlwindofchoicesthatliesatthecenterofliving.Inanysuchstateofmind,conflictcanatbest,beonlyapettymatter,lackingtrueuniversality.Theactsoftheevildoerandofthevirtuousmanalikebecomedramaticallyneutralized.ImaginethereducedeffectofCrimeandPunishmentortheBrothersKaramazochadDostoevskythoughtthatgoodandevil,asportrayedinthosebooks,werewhollyrelative,andifhehadnoconvictionaboutthem. Youcan’thaveavitalliteratureifyouignoreorshunevil.WhatyougetthenistheworldofPollyanna,goody-goodyinplaceofthegood.Cry,theBelovedCountryisagreatanddramaticnovelbecauseAlanPaton,inadditiontobeingaskilledworkman,seeswithcleareyesbothgoodandevil,differentiatesthem,pitchesthemintoconflictwitheachother,andtakessides.HeseesthatthenativeboyAbsalomKumalo,whohasbeenmurdered,cannotbejudgedjustlywithouttakingintoaccounttheenvironmentthathashadpartinshapinghim.ButPatonsees,too,thatAbsalomtheindividual,notsocietytheabstraction,committedtheactandisresponsibleforit.Mr.Patonunderstandsmercy.Heknowsthatthispreciousthingisnotevokedbysentimentalimpulse,butbyasearchingexaminationoftherealitiesofhumanaction.Mercyfollowsajudgment;itdoesnotprecedeit. OneofthenovelsbythetalentedPaulBowles,LetItComeDown,isfullofmotion,fullofsensationaldepravities,andisacrashingbore.Thebookrecognizesnogood,admitsnoevil,andiscoldlyindifferenttothemoralbehaviorofitscharacters.Itisalongshrug.Suchaviewoflifeisnondramaticandnegatesthevitalessenceofdrama.61.Inourage,accordingtotheauthor,astandpointoftentakenintheareaofethicsisthe________. A.relativisticviewofmorals B.greaterconcernwithconscience C.greaterconcernwithevil D.greaterconcernwithuniversals62.Theauthorbelievesthatgreatliteraturecanbringavividpictureof ________. A.eviltriumphingovergood B.goodtriumphingoverevil C.goodandevilinconstantconflict D.dramaticallyneutralizedgoodandevil63.Intheopinionoftheauthor,Cry,theBelovedCountryisagreatanddramaticnovelbecauseofPaton’s________. A.insightintohumanbehavior B.behavioristicbeliefs C.treatmentofgoodandevilasabstractions D.willingnesstomakemoraljudgments64.Whydoestheauthorusetheexpression“itisalongshrug”inreferringtoBowles’sbook? A.Becausehethinksthatthebookistoolengthy B.Becausehethinksthatthebookshowslittleconcernwiththeconflictbetweengoodandevil. C.Becausehethinksthatthebookismonotonous. D.Becausehethinksthatthebookshowsmuchconcernwithdepravities.65.Accordingtotheauthor,whichofthefollowingstatementsisNOTtrue? A.Conflictbetweengoodandevilisthevitalessenceofdrama B.LetItComeDowntellsthereaderhowtodifferentiategoodfromevil. C.CrimeandPunishmenthasagreateffectbecauseDostoevskyshowshisclearjudgmentofgoodandevil. D.Relativisticstandardsofethicscannotproducegreatdrama.Passage3Sociolinguists,sociologists,andanthropologistsfocusonthesocialcontextofbilingualism.Intheirview,languageperformanceiscloselytiedtothespeaker’spersonalidentityand identificationwiththecultureofthesecondlanguage.Socialfactorssuchasethnicpride,racism,communicationsituations,prejudice,andattitudesareimportantvariableshere.Learningasecondlanguagehasbothbenefitsandcosts.Apersonwillnotbemotivatedtolearnasecondlanguageifithasnegativeeffectsorassociationsforthelearner.Whatisimportantisthecommunicativeeffectivenessandsocialappropriatenessofthenewlanguage.Becomingbilingualinthesocioculturalperspectiveisameansofbeingamoreeffectiveandcompetentpersoninanotherculture.Aperennialquestionaboutbilingualismiswhetherbilingualsprofitorlosebecausetheyhavetmaintaintwolanguage.Theadvantageofhavingtwolanguagesisreferredtoasadditivebilingualism;subtractivebilingualismisthecasewhenonelanguagedetractsfromtheother.Generally,developmentalresearchhasshownthatbilingualismisnotareasonforconcern.Littleevidencehasbeenfoundtoindicatethatbilingualchildrensufferadisadvantagebecauseoftheirknowledgeoftwolanguages.WallaceLambertdevotedhisacademiccareertodemonstratingthesocialandpsychologicaladvantagesofbilingualisminCanada.LambertfoundthatFrenchCanadianbilingualsweremorelikelythanmonolingualstobeadvancedacademicallyinFrenchschoolsandthattheydevelopamorediversifiedandmoreflexibleintelligence.EnglishCanadianchildrenalsodobettertheirelementaryschoolcoursesareconductedinFrench.Thesocioculturalperspectivehelpslanguageprofessionalsunderstandtheculturalandsocialproblemsassociatedwithsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)incontextswherethenativelanguageandforeignlanguageareassociatedwithconflictingculturalvalues.ThishappenswhenimmigrantfamiliesmovetotheUnitedStatesandthechildrenwanttoquicklyidentifywithAmericanchildrenbylearningtospeakEnglish.Themotivationsherearenotaboutbecomingproficientbutaboutavoidingbeingmarkedorstigmatizedasaspeakerofanothertongue.Whenthenewlanguageprovidescultural,personal,educational,orfinancialbenefitsforthelearner,motivationandprogressinSLAwillbegreaterthanwhenthesecondlanguageconfersnoapparentadvantage.Intwo–waySpanish-andEnglish–languagelearningsettings,childrenlearningEnglishprogressfasterthanchildrenlearningSpanishbecauseEnglishhasgreaterpositiveassociationsthanSpanishdoes.OneoftheotherconsequencesofthesekindsofprogramsisthatSpanish-speakingchildrentendtoexperienceattritioninSpanishwhilelearningEnglish,whereasEnglish–speakingchildrenretainEnglishwhenlearningSpanish.Thisisaclearinstanceofsubtractiveandadditivebilingualism.Thesociolinguisticperspectivealsoprovidesanswersforwhypeopleswitchfromonelanguageordialecttoanotherindifferentsocialsituations.66.whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthispassage? A.MotivationandProgressinSecondLanguageAcquisition B.RelationshipbetweenLanguageandCulture C.Socioculturalists’ApproachtoSecondLanguageAcquisition D.TheImportanceofSecondLanguageAcquisition67.WhatdoestheauthorwanttoprovebygivingLambert’sresearchfoundinginthesecondparagraph? A.FrenchCanadianbilingualsinCanadaweremorelikelytobeadvancedacademicallyinFrenchschoolsthaninEnglishschools. B.FrenchCanadianbilingualsdobetterthanEnglishCanadianbilingualswhentheirelementaryschoolcoursesareconductedinFrenchinCanada. C.FrenchCanadianbilingualsdevelopamorediversifiedandmoreflexibleintelligencethanEnglishCanadianbilingualsinFrenchschoolsinCanada. D.Bilingualchildrenholdsomesocialandpsychologicaladvantagesinschools.68.Whatdoestheauthormainlydiscussinthethirdparagraph? A.RelationshipbetweenLanguageandCulturalValues B.CulturalandSocialInfluenceinSecondLanguageAcquisition C.TheImportanceofMotivationinSecondLanguageAcquisition D.TheAdvantagesofAdditiveBillingualismandDisadvantagesofSubtractiveBillingualism69.Whatdoestheword“attrition”inline14inthethirdparagraphmean? A.subtraction B.addition C.attribution D.restoration70.Thispassagewouldmostlikelybeassignedforreadinginacoursein_________. A.Sociology B.Linguistics C.Communications D.ThePsychologyofLanguagePassage4 Inthisbook,then,democracy–orwhatRobertDahltermspolyarchy–denotesasystemofgovernmentthatmeetsthreeessentialconditions:meaningfulandextensivecompetitionamongindividualsandorganizedgroups(especiallypoliticalparties)foralleffectivepositionsofgovernmentpower,atregularintervalsandexcludingtheuseofforce;a“highlyinclusive”levelofpoliticalparticipationintheselectionofleadersandpolicies,atleastthroughregularandfairelections,suchthatnomajor(adult)socialgroupisexcluded;andalevelofcivilandpoliticalliberties–freedomofexpression,freedomofthepress,freedomtoformandjoinorganizations–sufficienttoensuretheintegrityofpoliticalcompetitionandparticipation.Whilethisdefinitionis,initself,relativelystraightforward,itpresentsanumberofproblemsinapplication.Forone,countriesthatbroadlysatisfythesecriterianeverthelessdosotodifferentdegrees(andnonedosoperfectly,whichiswhyDahlpreferstocallthempolyarchies).Thefactorsthatexplainthisvariationatthedemocraticendofthespectrumindegreesofpopularcontrolandfreedomisanimportantintellectualproblem,butitisdifferentfromtheonethatconcernsusinthisbook,andsoitisonewehavehadlargelytobypass.Weseektodeterminewhycountriesdoordonotevolve,consolidate,maintain,loseandreestablishmoreorlessdemocraticsystemsofgovernment,andeventhislimitedfocusleavesuswithconceptualproblems.Theboundarybetweendemocraticandundemocraticissometimesblurredandimperfect,andbeyonditliesamuchbroaderrangeofvariationinpoliticalsystems.Wereadilyconcedethedifficultiesofclassificationthisvariationhasrepeatedlycausedus.Evenifwelookonlyatthepolitical,legal,andconstitutionalstructures,severalofourcasesappeartoliesomewhereontheboundarybetweendemocraticandsomethinglessthandemocratic.Theambiguityisfurthercomplicatedbytheconstraintsonfreepoliticalactivity,organization,andexpression,andthesubstantialremainingpoliticalprerogativesofmilitaryauthorities,thatmayinpracticemakethesystemmuchlessdemocraticthanitmightappear.Inallcases,wehavetriedtopayseriousattentiontoactualpracticeinassessingandclassifyingregimes.Butstill,thisleavesustomakedifficultandinsomewaysarbitraryjudgments.ThedecisionastowhetherThailandandZimbabwe,forexample,maytodaybeconsideredfulldemocraciesisrepletewithnuanceandambiguity.EveninthecaseofBrazil,whichwasgenerallypresumeddemocraticaftertheelectionofacivilianpresidentin1985,AlfredStepancautionsthattheextentofmilitaryprerogativestoparticipateingovernmentandwieldautonomouspowerputthecountry“onthemarginofnotbeingademocracy.”WiththedirectpresidentialelectionofDecember1989,thetransitionmaynowbeconsideredclosed,butseriousproblemsofdemocraticconsolidationremain. 71.Thispassageprobablyappearsin__________. A.intheintroductionofabook B.intheconclusionofabook C.inthemiddlepartabook D.intheacknowledgementofabook72.Accordingtotheauthor,thereasonforDahltotermdemocracyaspolyarchyisthat__________. A.therearesomanydifferentdemocraticcountries B.notonlytheextenttowhichso-calleddemocraticcountriesmeetthethreeconditionsisdifferent,butalsothedemocraticsituationsinallthesecountriesneedimproving C.Dahlwantstopersuadepeopletoaccepthisview D.itiseasiertounderstanddemocracyaspolyarchy73.Thepurposeoftheauthorinthisbookis__________. A.togiveadifferentdefinitionofdemocracyfromDahl B.totellpeoplewhydemocracyisimportant C.tofindoutthereasonwhydifferentcountrieshavedifferentdemocraticexperience D.totrytogiveaclearclassificationofdemocracy74.Accordingtotheauthor,thedifficultiestoclassifydemocracymayinclude__________. A.alotofvariedpoliticalsystemsexistingbeyondtheboundarybetweendemocraticandundemocratic B.theindistinctandunsatisfactoryboundarybetweendemocraticandundemocratic C.thelackofregularandfairelections D.BothAandB 75.WhyarethreecountriesThailand,ZimbabweandBrazilmentionedinthethirdparagraph? A.Theyareconsideredfulldemocracies. B.Theyhaveestablisheddemocraticsystems. C.Itisverydifficulttoassessandclassifythestateofdemocracyinthesethreecountriesaccordingtotheiractualpractice. D.Theyallareunderthecontrolofmilitaryauthorities.(注意：请将以下各题答案写在答题纸上)SectionBDirections:Inthissection,thereisapassagewithfivequestions.Afteryouhavereadthepassage,answerthequestionsB5,B6,B7,B8,B9andB10inEnglishonAnswerSheetB.Passage5TheideasthatflourishedduringtheearlyyearsofcognitivesciencehadastronginfluenceonthecreativemindofayoungpsychologistnamedJeromeBruner.In1956,withcolleaguesJacquelineGoodnowandGeorgeAustin,Bruner,publishedaningeniousandimportantaccountofcategorizationcalledAStudyofThinking.Init,theyanalyzedcategorizingandexpressedtheirbeliefthatitexplainswhyhumansarenotoverwhelmedbyenvironmentalcomplexity.Bruner,Goodnow,andAustineffectivelyshowedthattheirresearchparticipantsactivelyparticipatedintheclassificationprocess.Asyoucanimagine,thegreatvalueofBruner’sworkinthe1950sand1960slayintheenergyitsuppliedtotherenewedcognitivemovement.GardnernotedthatBruner’sstudyparticipantsweretreatedasactive,constructiveproblemsolvers,ratherthanaspassivereactorstowhateverstimuliwerepresentedtothem.Theactiveconstructionofsolutionstoproblemsimpliesthatstudentsturntotheirculturalenvironmentforcluestoaidthemintheirtask.AccordingtoBrunerandhisassociates,threetypesofconceptsexist:conjunctive,disjunctive,andrelational.Conjunctiveconceptsrelyonthejointpresenceofseveralattributes.Theseattributesareabstractedfrommanyindividualexperienceswithanobject,thing,orevent.Sotherearecategories,suchasboy,car,book,andorange.Disjunctiveconceptsarecomposedofconcepts,anyoneofwhoseattributesmaybeusedinclassification.Thatis,oneoranotherofitsattributesenablesanobjecttobeplacedinaparticularcategory.Agoodexampleofthedisjunctivecategoryisthestrikeinbaseball.Astrikemaybeaballthrownbythepitcherthatisovertheplateandbetweenabatter’sshouldersandknees,oraballatwhichthebetterswingsandmisses,oraballthatthebatterhitsasafoul(outsidetheplayinglimitsofthediamond).Any oneoftheseattributesenablestheobservertoclassifyitasastrike.Relationalconceptsareformedbytherelationshipthatexistsamongdefiningattributes.Theauthorsillustratethiscategorybyusingincomebrackets.Therearemanyincomelevelsorclasses,allofwhichexistbecauseoftherelationshipamongincome,eligibleexpenses,andnumberofdependents.Thecombinationofthesepropertiesdeterminesanindividual’sincomeclass.Thesearerelationalcategories.Bruner,Goodnow,andAustinconcludedthatcategorizingimpliesmorethanmerelyrecognizinginstances.Rulesarelearnedandthenappliedtonewsituations.Studentslearnthatasentence—subject,object,predicate—isthebasicunitinwriting,inhistoryclassaswellasinEnglishclass.Thevariouscategories(conjunctive,disjunctive,relational)arereallyrulesforgroupingattributestodefinethepositiveinstancesofanyconcept.Bruner’sworkondiscoverylearning,alongwiththatofPiagetandVygotsky,ledtoconstructivism,thecurrentprevailingapproachtothestudyandapplicationofcognitivepsychology.Answerthefollowingquestionsbrieflyaccordingtowhatyouhavejustread.B5.Whatisthemostappropriatetitleforthispassage?B6.AccordingtoBruner’stheory,whywouldn’thumansbeoverwhelmedbyenvironmentalcomplexity?B7.Whatismainlydiscussedinthesecondparagraph?B8.WhatdoBrunerandhisassociateswanttoillustratebygivingtheexampleofthestrikeinbaseball?B9.WhatisthefunctionofBruner’stheoryofcategorization?B10.Whatismostlikelytobetalkedaboutinthefollowingparagraph?
